MODERN  CITY 
PLANNING  AND 

MAINTENANCE 


FRANK  KOESTER 


UNIV.  OF  CALIF.  LIBRAf^Y,  LOS  ANG£l.bb 


LIBRARY  OF 

ARCHITECTURE  AND 

ALLIED  ARTS 


Gift  of 


The  Heirs 

of 

R.    Germain  Hubby,   A. I. A 


MODERN    CITY    PLANNING 
AND    MAINTENANCE 


BY  FRANK  KOESTER 


Hydroelectric  Developments  and  Engineering,  $5.00 

Modern  City  Planning  and  Maintenance,  $6.00 

Electricity  for  the  Farm  and  Home,  $1.00 

Steam-Electric  Power-Plants,  $5.00 

The  Price  of  Inefficiency,  $2.00 


AN     I-.AKIA     Al'Pl.lC.A  rK)N    OK    BASU;    PHINCI  I'LKS    OF    ClIA     I'l.ANNlNd 

IN    A    SMALL    TOWN 
The  C.ilii  Hall.  W'eringerode.  Germany  (149S  a.d.)  on  the  open  si/iiare  doniinales  (he 
other  sirurliires  and   is  the  focal  point  of  the  principal  streets,  while  the  street 
at  the  side,  being  curved,  adds  individnaliti;  and  raricti/.  and  the  fountain,  si/ni- 
bolic  of  the  city's  water  supply,  serves  as  an  embellishment 


MODERN  CITY  PLANNING 
AND  MAINTENANCE 


BY 


FRANK  KOESTER 


CONSULTING  CIVIC  ENGINEER 

AUTHOR    OF 

STEAM    ELECTRIC   POWER   PLANTS 

HYDROELECTRIC   DEVELOPMENTS   AND   ENGINEERING 

THE   PRICE    OF   INEFFICIENCY 

ETC. 


NEW  YORK 

McBRIDE,  NAST  AND  COMPANY 

1914 


Copyright,  1914,  by 
McBride,   Nast  &   Co. 


Published.  April,    1914 


Drban  rUsuiiafl 
iitxey 

/VA 


INTRODUCTION 

A  MOVEMENT  of  the  first  importance  and  of  great  pro- 
portions is  taking  place  among  American  cities,  which  while 
it  has  not  attracted  any  very  marked  degree  of  attention  on 
the  part  of  the  general  public,  is  yet  one  which  will  have 
lasting  consequences  of  the  most  beneficial  character. 

This  movement,  the  replanning  of  cities,  has  only  begun 
to  take  shape  in  this  country  in  the  last  few  years,  but 
already  great  progress  has  been  made,  and  plans  of  the  most 
elaborate  and  magnificent  character  have  been  proposed. 

The  subject  is  one  which  is  of  such  importance  in  the 
social,  aesthetic  and  practical  betterment  of  cities,  that  it  is 
of  vital  interest  not  only  to  the  city  administrator,  the 
engineer  and  the  architect,  but  also  to  every  citizen  who  has 
the  advancement  of  his  city's  welfare  at  heart. 

One  of  the  reasons  which  has  retarded  public  interest 
in  city  planning  lies  in  the  fact  that  there  is  to  be  had 
very  little  information  on  the  subject  in  a  form  generally 
available. 

While  a  considerable  literature  exists  in  French  and  Ger- 
man, principally  in  German,  there  is  but  little  in  English  and 
what  there  is  consists  principally  of  a  few  books  published  of 
late  years  in  England,  having  in  view  the  object  of  adapting 
German  practice  to  English  conditions. 

The  purpose  of  this  volume  is  to  present,  in  a  concise  and 
comprehensive  form,  the  principles  of  the  art  of  city  planning 
as  they  have  been  developed  in  modern  times. 

The  covering  of  the  subject  in  such  a  way  in  a  single 
volume  has  not  before  been  attempted,  so  that  nowhere  else 
is  to  be  found  the  summarization  of  principles  and  practice 
as  here  presented. 

In  addition  to  this  statement  of  principles  and  practice, 


vi  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

this  volume  treats  of  numerous  important  factors  in  city  plan- 
ning and  maintenance  not  yet  introduced  in  this  country  but 
which  have  stood  the  test  of  time  and  of  practice  abroad  and 
which  are  certain  to  be  adopted  here  sooner  or  later  as  have 
been  many  previous  improvements. 

Among  these  factors  are  the  zone  system  for  purposes  of 
regulating  the  height  of  buildings,  block  plans  and  traffic;  dis- 
tinguishing features  of  cities;  a  new  system  communal  industry 
to  supplant  the  trusts;  traffic  facilities  and  regulation;  harbor 
equipment  for  rapid  transfer  of  cargoes,  giving  inland  harbors 
the  advantages  of  seaboard  harbors;  minimization  of  street 
excavation ;  new  systems  of  street  illumination  with  high  can- 
dle power  units,  both  gas  and  electric;  novel  and  effective 
methods  of  police  and  fire  department  signalling;  electric 
machinery  for  street  cleaning  and  fire  fighting;  combination 
municipal  slaughter-house  ice  plant  systems;  utilization  of 
waste  exhaust  steam  for  district  heating  and  new  methods  of 
raising  municipal  revenues  and  dividend  payments  to  citizens 
instead  of  tax  collections. 

There  are  further  treated  a  large  number  of  novel  details 
involved  in  city  planning,  maintenance  and  administration, 
which  will  prove  useful  in  practice  wherever  introduced  as  they 
have  been  drawn  from  the  experience  of  other  cities  both  here 
and  abroad  and  have  proven  of  practical  value. 

City  planning  is  a  subject  of  many  ramifications  and 
covers  a  much  wider  field  than  is  generally  supposed.  It 
includes  not  only  the  aesthetic  beautification  of  the  city, 
but  also  the  construction  and  co-ordination  of  all  the  ele- 
ments which  go  to  make  the  modern  city  a  practical 
operative  mechanism. 

The  planning  of  a  city  involves  thus  the  numerous  and 
highly  important  engineering  features  which  make  a  city  a 
habitable  place  and  does  not  merely  cover  the  design  and 
layout  of  its  streets  and  the  more  prominent  buildings,  but 
goes  into  every  structural  element,  such  as  water  supply, 
lighting,  maintenance,  traffic  system,  refuse  disposal  and  all 
the  factors  which  form  a  part  of  the  completed  city.  These 
subjects  are  here  treated  in  their  more  general  phases  only, 


INTRODUCTION  vii 

since  a  detailed  consideration  would  be  beyond  the  limits  of 
this  volume. 

The  engineering  factors  of  city  planning  are  of  greater  im- 
portance than  the  architectural  and  landscape  factors  as  far 
as  practical  conditions  are  concerned,  and  the  problems  and 
actual  work  of  city  planning  are  greatly  of  an  engineering 
nature.  Operation  and  maintenance  of  a  city  cannot  be 
accomplished  in  an  efficient  manner  unless  there  has  been 
engineering  at  the  outset  in  the  city's  planning. 

An  acquaintance  with  the  principles  of  this  art  is  neces- 
sary, not  only  for  a  proper  understanding  of  the  great  move- 
ment which  is  beginning  in  the  United  States,  but  also  to 
enable  one  to  appreciate  and  to  enjoy  the  work  of  civic 
architects  and  engineers  wherever  it  is  found.  Indeed,  no 
one  who  appreciates  art  in  its  various  forms  has  fulfilled  his 
duty  to  himself  until  he  has  become  familiar  with  the  princi- 
ples and  practice  of  city  planning,  and  one  who  has  at  heart 
the  interest  of  the  city  cannot  fail  to  find,  in  the  art  of  city 
planning,  an  inspiration  and  a  means  of  expression  for  his 
best  activities.  It  opens  a  new  vista  of  civic  possibilities 
and  has  a  direct  and  important  infiuence  on  the  life  of  every 
citizen. 

While  city  planning  is  a  subject  of  the  greatest  antiquity 
and  one  the  principles  of  which  were  well  understood  by  the 
ancients,  as  is  shown  by  the  examples  of  Greek  and  Roman 
towns,  and  one  which  in  mediaeval  times  was  equally  well  under- 
stood, as  is  proven  by  such  German  towns  as  Rotenburg, 
Nuremberg,  Cologne,  Maintz,  etc.,  yet  modern  city  planning, 
in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  now  understood,  dates  from  the 
period  immediately  subsequent  to  the  Franco-Prussian  War, 
and  is  of  purely  German  origin. 

In  1874,  the  United  Society  of  German  Architects  and 
Engineers  laid  down  certain  principles  of  city  planning  and 
gave  the  first  organized  impetus  to  the  practice  of  the 
art. 

Since  that  time,  the  principles  and  practice  of  modern 
city  planning  have  spread  to  other  countries  and  the  art  has 
been  so  rapidly  developed  that  it  has  now  reached  a  definite 


viii  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

form  and  its  engineering  features  have  been  reduced  to  a 
science. 

Its  theory  and  principles  are  taught  in  university  courses 
abroad  and  it  is  recognized  as  a  leading  and  important  study. 
The  University  of  Berlin,  for  example,  devotes  a  special 
faculty  to  the  subject. 

The  author,  having  had  a  long  familiarity  with  both  the 
practical  and  theoretical  side  of  European  practice,  and  dur- 
ing his  residence  in  America  the  past  twelve  years,  having 
kept  actively  in  touch  with  American  developments,  enjoys 
an  exceptional  point  of  view,  and  is  thus  qualified  to  make 
his  contribution  to  the  subject  in  the  form  which  now  seems 
to  be  most  needed. 

As  the  problem  of  every  city  is  an  individual  problem 
and  must  be  treated  as  such,  a  wide  acquaintance  and  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  entire  field  is  necessary  for  the 
specialist,  as  otherwise  plans  may  be  developed  on  a  scale 
too  primitive  and  inadequate.  Thus  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  progress  made  abroad  is  a  necessary  part  of  the  special- 
ist's equipment,  and  the  work  of  city  planning  should  only 
be  entrusted  to  those  who  are  thus  qualified. 

It  has  been  the  aim  to  treat,  in  this  volume,  the  problem 
of  the  American  city.  In  doing  so,  the  plans  of  the  various 
American  cities  which  are  considering  the  subject,  some  fifty 
in  number,  have  been  examined  and  the  leading  features 
described  or  shown  in  illustration.  The  extent  and  ten- 
dencies of  the  movement  are  thus  indicated. 

The  courtesy  of  the  various  City  Planning  and  Improve- 
ment Associations  and  Commissioners  and  Chief  Engineers  of 
Public  Work  of  the  various  cities  in  supplying  material  is 
acknowledged  with  thanks  and  appreciation,  as  is  also  the 
similar  kindness  of  a  number  of  foreign  cities  and  of  promi- 
nent individual  authorities  abroad,  including  Professors  Felix 
Genzmer,  Joseph  Brix,  Peter  Behrens,  Rudolph  Eberstadt, 
Bruno  Mohring;  Doctor  Engineer  Joseph  Stubben  and  Chief 
Engineer  Richard  Peterson,  all  of  Berlin;  Architects  Eugen 
Henard,  Paris,  and  Max  Stirn,  Cologne;  Professor  Hans 
Poelzig,   Breslau,  and   Professor  H.  Erlwein,  Dresden,  and 


INTRODUCTION  IX 

further,  the  Deutsche  Maschinenfabrik,  Duisburg;  the  Allge- 
meine  Electricitats  Gesellschaft  and  the  Siemens  Schuckert 
Werke  of  Berlin. 

Acknowledgments  are  also  due  "The  American  City"  and 
"The  American  Architect"  in  whose  columns  much  of  the 
material  of  this  volume  first  appeared  in  the  form  of  articles, 
including  the  principal  parts  of  the  author's  addresses,  pre- 
sented at  the  congresses  for  Civic  Development,  Municipal 
Administration,  and  the  Progress  of  Urban  Activities,  Diissel- 
dorf,  Germany,  1912  (Kongress  fiir  Stadtewesen),  and  Ghent, 
Belgium,  1913,  (Congres  International  et  Exposition  de 
L'Art  de  Construire  les  Villes  et  de  L' Organisation  de  la  Vie 
Municipale) . 

FRANK  KOESTER 

Hudson  Terminal  Building, 
New  York  City,  March,  1914 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introduction v 

I   What  City  Planning  Is 1 

II   How  TO  Proceed  in  Re-planning  A  City 11 

III  The  Civic  Center 20 

Federal,  Municipal,  Traffic,  Social,  Amusement,  Educational  and 
Shipping  Centers. 

IV  The  Great  Ground  Plan 36 

Zone  or  District  Systems;  Classificalion  and  Gradation  of  Districts; 
Individuality  of  Cities;  Building  Regulations. 

V  Arterial  Highways 55 

Arrangement  of  Highways;   Width  of  Streets;   Cutting  New  Streets. 

VI   Streets  Up-to-date 67 

Appearance  of  Streets;  General  Service  Tunnel  and  Pipe  Galleries; 
Street  Fixtures;  Safety  Isles;  Sidewalks;  Police  and  Fire  Alarm 
Systems;  Shade  Trees. 

VII    Harbor  Improvements 87 

Harbor  Improvements;  Terminal  Facilities;  Water  Gates;  Canal 
Transportation. 

VIII   Bridges  and  Bridge  Approaches 98 

Aesthetic  Features;  Co-operation  of  Engineer  and  Architect;  Bridge 
Approaches;   Various  Types  of  Bridges. 

IX  Traffic  and  Transportation 106 

Electric  Traction;  Surface,  Elevated  and  Subway  Traffic;  Statistics 
of  Rapid  Transit;  Moving  Platforms;  Vehicular  Traffic;  Naming 
Streets. 

X   Open  Squares  and  Traffic  Regulations 122 

Traffic  Distributing  Squares;  Transportation  Terminal  Spaces; 
Forecourts  of  Public  Buildings  and  Entrance  Spaces. 

XI   Park  Systems 139 

Location  of  Parks;  Small,  Central  and  Rural  Parks;  Floral  Parks 
and  Gardens.  Communal  Ownership  Parks;  Athletic  and  Play 
Grounds. 

XII   Civic  Embellishment 149 

Boulevards;  Plazas;  Parks;  Terraces;  Monuments;  Fountains; 
Gates;  Arches;  Shade  Trees;  Bridges;  Comfort  Stations;  Bay 
Fronts;   Water  Gates;    Quays. 


xu  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

XIII  Building  Regulations  and  Block  Plans 166 

Height  of  Buildings;  Arrangement  of  Buildings;  Proportion  of  Lot 
Built  Upon;  Gradation  of  Factories;  Size  of  Apartments;  Work- 
ingmen's  Houses;  Block  Plans. 

XIV  Garden  Cities      183 

Principles  of  Garden  Cities;  Workingmen's  Colonies;  Social  Facili- 
ties; Surburban  Gardening. 

XV   Civic  Culture      201 

Schools;  Churches;  Theatres;  Museums;  Art  Galleries;  Libraries; 
Concert  Halls. 

XVI   Administrative  Functions 206 

Hospitals;  Poorhouses;  Lodging  Houses  and  Rescue  Homes;  Or- 
phan Asylums;  Homes  for  Widows  and  the  Aged  and  Infirm; 
Police  and  Fire  Departments. 

XVII    Communal  Industries 217 

Municipal  Markets;  Co-operative  Markets;  Municipal  Slaughter 
Houses  and  Ice  Plants;  Public  Baths;  Stimulation  of  the  Co-opera- 
tion of  Small  Manufacturers;  Central  Manufacturing  Plants  for 
Co-operative  Industries. 

XVIII   City  Construction  and  Maintenance 230 

(A)  Street  Construction 230 

Street   Paving;    Street  Repairing;    Municipal  Paving  Plants; 

Double-Decked  Streets;  Pipe  Galleries. 

(B)  Sewers 241 

Systems  of  Sewers;  Sewage  Disposal  Plants. 

(C)  Care  of  Streets      245 

How  to  Preserve  Street  Surfaces;  Street  Sanding;  Street  Flushing. 

(D)  Street  Cleaning 248 

Hours  for  Street  Cleaning;  Methods  of  Street  Cleaning;  Garbage 

and  Snow  Removal. 

(,E)  Refuse  Disposal 254 

Land  and  Water  Dumping;  Incineration  of  Refuse;  By-Producls 
of  Garbage  and  Refuse. 

(F)  Water  Supply 258 

Purification  Systems;  Water  Works;  Water  Distribution;  Water 

Consumption. 

(G)  Gas  Supply 266 

Coal  Gas;  Water  Gas;  By-Products;  Gas  Pressure;  Gas  Dis- 
tribution. 

(H)  Electric  Generating  Plants      269 

Steam-  and  Hydro-Electric  Plants;  Internal  Combustion  Engine 
and  Combination  Plants;  Size  nf  Machinery;  Electric  Current 
Distribution;    Central  Station  Service. 

(/)  Electric  Street  Railways 275 

Systems  of  Railways;  Sub-Stations;  Car  Barns;  Railway  Equip- 
ment and  Operation. 

XIX  Valuation  of  Purlic  Utilities 281 

Basis  for  Valuation;  Physical  Factors;  Equitable  Adjustment;  Con- 
fiscatory Valuation;    Valuation  in  City  Planning. 


CONTENTS  xiii 

PAGE 

XX  Financing  Civic  Improvements 287 

Distribution  of  Costs;  Excess  Condemnation;  Apportionment  of 
Assessments;   Commission  of  Assessment  and  Condemnation. 

XXI   The  Planning  of  Growing  Towns 294 

Planning  Towns  at  the  Outset;  Cost  of  Town  Planning;  Necessity  of 
Expert  Knowledge;  Principal  Factors  in  Town  Planning;  Town 
Sites;    Civic  Improvement  Associations. 

APPENDIX 

"Co-operation  OF  Engineer  AND  Architect  in  City  Planning" 305 

Author's  Address  delivered  at  the  International  Congress  and  Exposition  for 
City  Planning  and  City  Maintenance,  at  Ghent,  Belgium,  1913. 

The  Executive  Management  of  a  City 318 

INDEX 323 


MODERN  CITY  PLANNING 

City  planning  determines  the  destiny  of  a  city. 

It  develops  artistic  taste,  civic  pride  and  patri- 
otism; it  makes  better  citizens  and  artisans;  it 
adds  to  health,  comfort  and  happiness;  it  helps  to 
increase  the  population  and  to  produce  industrial 
prosperity. 

City  planning  attracts  industries,  commerce  and 
visitors;  it  produces  better  transportation  facilities, 
improved  hygienic  conditions,  and  more  adequate 
and  less  expensive  living  quarters  and  food  supplies. 

City  planning  is  a  business  proposition  of  the 
first  importance. 


THE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

City  Hall  Square,  Wernigerode Frontispiece 

Forum,  Pompeii       Facing  Page  4 

Street  of  the  Tombs,  Pompeii 4 

Markus  Tower,  Rothenburg      5 

Gale  of  Victory,  Munich 12 

Porta  Nigra,  Trier  (Treves) 12 

Woolworth  Building,  New  York 13 

Justitz  Palace,  Munich 20 

City  Hall  and  Courts,  St.  Louis 20 

Konigsberg,  Square 21 

Civic  Center,  Seattle 28 

Civic  Center,  Ground  Plan,  Seattle      29 

Zwinger,  Dresden 34 

Burgplatz,  Vienna 34 

City  Hall,  Munich 35 

Place  du  Chatelet,  Paris ■ 40 

Rue  de  Rivoli,  Paris 41 

St.  Michel  Fountain,  Paris 46 

Flatiron  Building,  New  York 46 

Comfort  Station,  Providence 47 

City  Hall  Plaza,  Philadelphia 52 

Watergate,  Chicago 52 

Princes  Street,  Edinburgh 53 

Trafalgar  Square,  London      58 

Market  Plaza,  Wiesbaden      59 

Tauentzien  Street,  Berlin       68 

Charles  Gate,  Munich 68 

Gaiety  Theater,  London 69 

St.  Peter's,  Rome 69 

Double  Arm  Lamp  Post 72 

Double  Arm  Trolley  Post 72 

Single  Arm  Lamp  Post 72 

Newspaper  Stand 73 

Advertising  Column 73 

Municipal  Clock 73 

Friederich's  Museum,  Berlin 78 

Central  Park,  New  York,  Illuminated 79 

Public  Library,  New  York,  Illuminated      79 

Twenty-Third  Street,  New  York      84 

Street  Widening,  New  York 84 

Barbarossa  Plaza,  Cologne 85 

Maximilian  Street,  Munich 85 

Harbor,  Neuss      88 

Harbor,  Frankfort 88 

Harbor,  Hamburg 89 

Harbor,  Bremen 89 

Docks,  Hamburg 92 

Chelsea  Docks,  New  York 92 


xvi  THE  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Air  Ship  Harbor,  Potsdam 93 

Water  Front,  Kiel 96 

Jungfernstieg,  Hamburg 96 

Thames  Embankment,  London 97 

Flhine  Bridge,  Bonn 100 

Rhine  Bridge,  Cologne 100 

Alexander  Bridge,  Paris      101 

Spree  Bridge,  Berlin 101 

Union  R.  R.  Station,  Washington 106 

Grand  Central  Station,  New  York 106 

Pennsylvania  Station,  New  York 106 

Railway  Station,  Cologne 107 

Railway  Station,  Frankfort 107 

Elevated  Railway  Station,  Berlin 114 

Elevated  Railway,  Berlin       114 

Biilow  Street  Station,  Berhn      115 

Nollendorf  Plaza  Station,  Berlin 120 

Subway  Kiosk,  Buda-Pest 120 

Votiv  Church,  Vienna 121 

Augustus  Square,  Leipzig 126 

Plaza  del  Popolo,  Rome 126 

Friederich's  Plaza,  Frankfort 127 

Franzens  Ring,  Vienna 127 

Brandenburger  Gate,  Berlin 134 

Avenue  of  Victory,  Berlin      134 

Terrace,  Sanssouci,  Potsdam 135 

Wilhehna,  Canstadt 135 

Palm  Garden,  Frankfort 140 

Concert  Salon,  Gotenburg 140 

Court  Garden  and  Allee,  Diisseldorf 141 

Assembly  Center,  Philadelphia 146 

Wilhelmina  Sea  Bridge,  Scheveningen 147 

Piazzetta,  Venice 152 

Harbor  Gate,  Lindau      152 

Monument  Light  Columns,  Berlin 153 

River  Promenade,  Diisseldorf 153 

Rothenburg,  Herrengasse       158 

Monument,  Berlin,  Illuminated 159 

Unter  Den  Linden,  Berhn,  Illuminated       159 

Bismark  Monument,  Hamburg 160 

Bismark  Monument,  Berlin       160 

Vblkerschlacht  Monument,  Leipzig      161 

Hermannsschlacht  Monument 161 

Skyline,  Cologne      168 

Skyline,  Bremen 168 

Skyline,  Hamburg 168 

Munich,  General  View 169 

Workingmen's  Apartment  Houses 174 

Court  of  Workingmen's  Houses 174 

Residential  Street,  Berhn       175 

Architecture  of  Large  Manufacturing  Buildings 178 

Architecture  of  Large  Drygood  Store  Buildings 179 

Court  of  Workingmen's  Houses ■  188 


THE   ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

Building  for  the  Aged 188 

Workingmen's  Colony,  Altendorf 189 

City  Theater,  Frankfort 204 

Opera  House,  Frankfort 204 

Cathedral,  Cologne      205 

Gate  to  Greenwood  Cemetery,  Brooklyn 212 

Gate  to  Cypress  Hill  Cemetery,  Brooklyn      212 

National  Maine  Monument,  New  York 213 

Children's  School  Gardens,  Lock  Haven 220 

Swimming  Pool,  St.  Louis      220 

Fairy  Fountain,  Friederichsheim 221 

Municipal  Abattoir,  Dresden 228 

Bush  Terminal,  Brooklyn 229 

Terrace,  Central  Park,  New  York 234 

Gateway,  Sanssouci,  Potsdam       235 

Sicilian  Garden,  Sanssouci,  Potsdam 235 

Sunken  Refuse  Receptacle 248 

Refuse  Can  for  Street  Sweepings      248 

Refuse  Collecting  Cart 248 

Refuse  Destruction  Plant,  Hamburg • 249 

Sewage  Disposal  Plant,  Philadelphia 249 

Waterworks,  Peking 258 

Waterworks,  Leutzsch 259 

Fountain  Paolina,  Rome 264 

Fountain  Trevi,  Rome 264 

Wittelsbach  Fountain,  Munich 265 

Gas  Works,  Frankfort 274 

Electric  Generating  Plant,  Dresden      274 

Water  Tower,  Stellingen 275 

Water  Works,  Posen 275 

Schloss  Plaza,  Berlin       282 

Burg  Theater,  Vienna 282 

Castle  Square,  Karlsruhe 283 

Hall  of  Liberty,  Regensburg      288 

Bavaria,  Statue,  Munich 288 

Emperor  Welhelra  L  Monument,  Bonn 289 

Kyffhauser  Monument,  Harz  Mountains 289 

Naples,  Italy 294 

Workingmen's  Colony,  Alfredshof 294 

Limburg-Lahn  Valley 295 

Coburg  with  the  Veste 295 

Harbor  at  Antwerp 306 

Lift-Bridge,  Duisburg-Ruhrort      306 

Landwehr  Canal,  Berlin 307 

Subway  Station,  City  Park,  Berlin 312 

Bridge,  James  Park,  Madison,  N.  J 313 

Bridge,  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco 313 

Interior  of  Elevated  Railway  Station,  Berlin 316 

Interior  of  Subway  Station,  Berlin       316 

Tivoli  Hydro-Electric  Plant,  Rome      317 

Grand  Staircase  to  Statue  of  St.  Gellfert,  Buda-Pest 320 

Garden  Staircase,  Buda-Pest 320 

Fountain  of  Neptune,  Firenze       321 


DRAWINGS  AND   DIAGRAMS 

PAGE 

Forum,  Rome,  Plan 22 

Forum,  Pompeii,  Plan 27 

Civic  Center,  Hirschberg,  Plan 33 

Civic  Center,  Hirschberg,  View 33 

Cologne,  Ground  Plan 37 

Mannheim,  Great  Ground  Plan 39 

Karlsruhe,  Great  Ground  Plan      41 

Washington,  Great  Ground  Plan      43 

Radial  and  Circumferential  Streets 48 

Delhi,  India's  Capital 50 

Carberra,  Australia's  Capital 52 

Waterways,  Chicago 52 

Street  Profiles,  Berlin      56 

Street  Profiles,  Berlin      57 

Cologne,  Re-planning  Streets 61 

Approaches  to  Railroad  Terminal,  Berhn 63 

Chicago,  Great  Ground  Plan 65 

Safety  Isles 71 

Harbor,  Frankfort 95 

Suspension  Bridge,  Berlin 101 

Stone  Arch  Bridge,  Berlin 101 

Steel  Arch  Bridge,  Berhn 101 

Density  of  Population,  Paris 108 

Volume  of  Traffic,  Paris 109 

Volume  of  Traffic,  Berhn 112 

Rotherhithe  Tunnel,  London 118 

Congested  Street  Traffic 124 

Underground  Street  Crossings 125 

Super-Imposed  Street  Crossing 128 

Traffic  Regulation.  Columbus  Circle,  New  York 130 

Traffic  Street  Signs      132 

Parks  and  Boulevards,  Kansas  City 137 

Parks  and  Boulevards,  Boston      144 

Parks  and  Boulevards,  Berlin 145 

Gateway,  Berlin,  Proposed 151 

Kings  Plaza,  Berlin 157 

Diagram,  Determining  Width  of  Streets 167 

Diagram,  Balancing  Low  Buildings 167 

Tall  Buildings       171 

Blocks  for  Garden  Cities 176 

Typical  Open  Block  Plans 181 

Liverpool  Garden  Suburb 184 

Workingmen's  Colony,  Dahlhauser  Heide 190 

Garden  City,  Port  Sunhght 193 

English  Workingmen's  Home 196 

Oscar  Plaza,  Berlin 202 

Vend6me  Plaza,  Paris 203 

Plan  of  the  Cathedral,  Ulm 204 

Double  Deck  Business  Street 237 


DRAWINGS   AND   DIAGRAMS  xix 

PAGE 

Double  Deck  Residential  Street 239 

General  Public  Utility  Tunnel 241 

Sub-Surface  Draining  of  Streets 246 

Draining  Street  Railway  Rails      247 

Metropolitan  Subway,  Paris      276 

Elevated  Railway,  Berlin 277 

Suspended  Railway 279 

Assessment  of  Seventh  Avenue,  New  York 291 

Tempelhofer-Feld 296 

Two  Ground  Plans  of  City's  Extensions 298 

Suburban  Colony,  Ahrensfelde,  Berlin 301 


MODERN  CITY  PLANNING 
AND  MAINTENANCE 

CHAPTER   I 
WHAT    CITY   PLANNING  IS 

One  of  the  most  significant  movements  in  the  history  of 
American  cities  is  now  beginning  to  manifest  itself.  It  is 
the  development  of  the  science  of  city  planning,  so  long 
neglected,  with  such  costly  results  as  are  seen  in  the  unneces- 
sary congestion  and  crowded  conditions  of  some  portions  of 
cities  and  in  the  backward  development  of  other  portions; 
in  the  slums  on  the  one  hand  and  the  inaccessible  suburbs 
on  the  other,  so  characteristic  of  the  majority  of  American 
and  English  cities. 

City  planning  is  not  only  a  question  of  engineering  and 
architecture ;  it  goes  more  deeply  into  the  lives  of  the  citizens, 
affecting  them  in  numerous  ways  with  a  degree  of  importance 
that  can  only  be  realized  by  those  who  have  made  a  special 
study  of  the  subject. 

The  effect  on  its  citizens  of  the  building  of  a  city  in 
accordance  with  the  highest  principles  of  the  art  of  city 
planning  will  be  one  of  a  remarkable  betterment  in  their 
social,  ethical  and  physical  conditions.  The  superior  appear- 
ance, beauty  and  harmony  of  the  city  will  develop  artistic 
taste  and  will  result  in  increased  civic  pride  and  patri- 
otism. This  in  turn  affects  the  character  of  the  individual 
favorably,  improving  moral  conditions.  The  better  hygienic 
system  of  the  well-planned  city  provides  more  light,  purer 
air  and  more  healthful  and  less  expensive  living  quarters, 
affecting  the  whole  lives  of  the  citizens  favorably. 

The  improved  plan  of  the  city  by  providing  safer  and 
more  direct  means  of  transportation  prevents  accidents  and 
saves  enormous  amounts  of  time.    The  conveniently  located 


2  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

parks,  recreation  places,  public  baths,  gjonnasiums,  with 
ready  access  to  woodlands  and  athletic  fields,  provides  in- 
creased opportunity  for  physical  development.  The  proper 
location  of  municipal  markets  affords  cheap  and  wholesome 
supplies  of  food.  These  factors,  with  convenient  location  of 
schools,  libraries,  churches  and  other  structures  of  a  public 
nature,  all  unite  to  place  the  life  of  the  citizen  on  a  higher 
plane.  A  greater  sense  of  responsibility  is  instilled  while  the 
comfort  and  enjoyment  of  the  individual  is  added  to,  and  an 
increase  of  population  of  a  higher  character  effected. 

While  the  movement  in  its  present  recrudescence  is 
very  recent,  the  art  of  city  planning  is  one  of  the  greatest 
antiquity.  The  remains  of  the  earliest  communal  abodes  of 
man,  of  however  primitive  a  nature,  show  a  certain  definite 
arrangement.  With  the  development  of  races,  villages  be- 
came towns  and  towns  cities,  continually  on  a  larger  scale, 
and  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  higher  the  degree  of 
civilization  of  a  people,  the  greater  will  be  the  size  of  its 
cities.  The  civilization  of  the  Romans  was  largely  expressed 
in  the  city  of  Rome,  and  the  glories  of  ancient  peoples 
generally  were  shown  in  their  cities. 

In  the  art  of  city  planning,  genius  has  occasionally  arisen, 
among  the  early  masters  being  Merian  and  Canaletto,  the 
former  developing  the  general  plan  of  the  city,  and  the 
latter  excelling  in  its  interior  arrangements.  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  in  1666,  after  the  great  fire  of  London,  had  the 
genius  to  reconstruct  the  city  on  a  plan  that  would  have 
made  it  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  world,  but  he  was 
ahead  of  his  time  and  London  was  permitted  to  grow  up 
into  the  disordered  mass  of  streets  and  lanes  that  make 
it  the  greatest  spot  of  confusion  to-day  on  the  face  of  the 
globe. 

L'Enfant,  however,  who  planned  the  city  of  Washington, 
admittedly  the  most  beautiful  city  in  America  and  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  in  the  world,  enjoyed  the  double  good  fortune 
of  having  the  support  of  the  founders  of  the  republic  and  an 
unencumbered  site  upon  which  to  build,  while  most  city 
planners  have  had  to  reorganize  existing  cities. 


WHAT    CITY    PLANNING    IS  3 

Equally  fortunate  was  Baron  Haussmann  who  rebuilt 
Paris.  He  was  given  a  free  hand  and  a  plan  was  developed, 
in  which  conceptions  of  order,  convenience,  variety  and 
grandeur  were  not  allowed  to  be  interfered  with  by  question 
of  expense.  Great  avenues  were  cut  through  labyrinths  of 
streets,  and  foul  and  congested  districts  were  replaced  with 
parks  and  spacious  squares.  Hundreds  of  millions  were 
spent  and  Paris  is  still  spending  gladly  and  with  a  lavish 
hand  for  extensions  of  his  plan. 

The  early  masters,  however,  did  not  impart  their  theory, 
leaving  only  their  accomplished  work  as  examples.  Modern 
or  practical  city  planning,  therefore,  is  a  new  art,  based  upon 
principles,  theories  and  practice  only  recently  placed  on  a 
scientific  basis.  The  modern  masters  are  Reinhard  Baumeister, 
the  pioneer  of  the  science  of  modern  city  planning,  and 
Camillo  Sitte,  the  formulator  of  its  aesthetic  principles,  while 
Joseph  Stiibben  is  the  greatest  of  practical  city  builders. 
Their  work  is  available  in  theory,  design  and  practice 
and  will  serve  for  future  emulation  as  it  has  served  modern 
Germany  so  well,  as  the  basis  of  her  wonderful  cities. 

In  the  scope  of  practical  city  planning  are  included  the 
broadest  principles  and  the  fullest  details.  The  leading 
elements  are  the  plan  of  the  city  as  a  whole,  the  segregation 
in  suitable  districts  of  the  different  classes  of  the  population, 
and  their  proper  housing  in  classes  of  structures  suited  to 
their  requirements,  the  arrangement  of  such  classes  of 
structures  in  groups  and  district  units,  and  the  placing  of 
such  groups  and  units  in  proper  relation  to  the  whole;  the 
development  of  other  classes  of  units,  such  as  civic  centers, 
parks,  public  squares,  grounds,  athletic  and  recreation  fields 
and  cemeteries,  and  their  location  with  reference  to  their  uses 
and  nature;  the  supplying  of  the  units  with  the  facilities  and 
the  public  structures  necessary  for  the  business  to  be  trans- 
acted in  them;  the  location  in  civic  centers  of  buildings 
suited  thereto,  both  as  to  their  uses  and  their  architectural 
characteristics;  the  arrangement  of  systems  of  transportation, 
the  laying  out  of  streams  of  traffic,  location  of  railway 
stations  and  bridges  and  harbor  facilities;    the  systematic 


4  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

location  of  schools,  libraries,  churches,  hospitals,  institutions, 
theatres  and  other  semi-public  structures;  the  general 
hygienic  design  of  buildings  and  the  system  of  city  sanitation 
and  waste  disposal;  the  laying  out  of  adjoining  lands,  woods 
and  fields  for  purposes  of  recreation,  the  artistic  regulation 
of  structures  and  street  plans  and  the  laying  out  of  surround- 
ing territory,  all  in  accordance  with  a  settled  plan,  adapted 
to  fulfdl  in  the  best  possible  way  the  purposes  intended  and 
to  take  care  of  the  growth  of  the  city  and  prevent  its  ab- 
normal development. 

The  planning  of  a  city,  like  the  planning  of  anything 
else,  should  be  carried  out  with  a  view  to  the  use  which  is 
to  be  made  of  it,  and  to  adapt  it  best  to  that  use,  and  in 
addition  to  make  it  as  pleasing  from  an  artistic  point  of  view 
as  possible.  There  should  first  be  strength  in  the  design  and, 
if  strength  be  economically  manifested,  the  artistic  enrich- 
ment of  the  design  will  be  easily  effected. 

In  city  building,  the  strength  of  its  design  may  be  indi- 
cated by  its  plan.  Its  streets  and  avenues  should  be  broadly 
and  firmly  laid  out,  advantage  taken  of  its  natural  site  and 
a  sense  of  unity  caused  to  pervade  the  whole  as  a  result  of 
its  unity  in  structure.  Its  design  should  not  be  crowded,  or 
its  streets  narrow  and  haphazard,  nor  should  they  be  through- 
out of  such  absolute  uniformity  as  to  destroy  their  individu- 
ality, and  make  the  city  merely  a  monotonous  aggregation 
of  streets,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  American  cities. 

A  city  should  be  planned  and  built  with  breadth  of 
view  and  boldness  of  execution;  it  should  be  built  for  the 
future  more  than  for  the  present,  and  its  design  should  halt 
at  no  necessary  elaboration  nor  consider  expense. 

What  the  city  is  for  should  always  be  considered  and  the 
most  economical  and  effective  methods  of  reaching  its  aims 
should  be  adopted,  yet  the  fact  that  it  is  not  merely  utili- 
tarian should  not  be  lost  sight  of.  A  city  should  not  only 
be  a  place  of  residence  but  an  inspiration  to  its  inhabitants 
and  a  worthy  object  of  their  civic  pride. 

The  city  has  a  powerful  psychological  effect  upon  its 
inhabitants,  and  a  beautiful  city  is  not  only  a  pleasure  to  the 


THE    FORUM,    POMPEII 


STREET    OF    THE    TOMBS,    POMPEII 
Examples  of  classic  city  planning 


ROTHENBURG  ON  THE  TAUBER,  MARKUS  TOWER  AND  RODER  ARCH 

A  pirliircsiiur  spol  in  the  most  picturesque  of  the  old  cities  of  Germany.     Much 
Studied  by  modern  city  planners  for  secrets  of  charm  and  individuality 


WHAT    CITY    PLANNING    IS  5 

aesthetic  sense,  but  a  stimulus  to  right  conduct.  Mean 
deeds  are  most  apt  to  be  enacted  in  mean  streets,  and  the 
plunderer  avoids  the  stately  square  and  broad  avenue.  A 
murderer  seldom  if  ever  seeks  his  victim  on  the  steps  of  a 
capitol  or  in  the  corridors  of  a  library  or  gallery. 

The  basis  of  the  design  of  the  city  is  found  in  the  pur- 
poses for  which  it  is  constructed,  and  these  include: 

The  housing  of  its  inhabitants  and  their  industries; 

The  conveyance  of  supplies  and  materials  of  manufacture 
and  manufactured  products; 

The  disposition  of  waste  materials; 

The  arrangement  of  the  city  in  an  accessible  manner, 
with  rapid  and  convenient  means  of  transportation; 

The  provision  of  facilities  for  education,  assistance  and 
recreation  for  the  common  use. 

These  are  the  fundamental  objects  of  the  city,  and  cities 
exist  because  these  objects  can  be  more  effectively  attained 
when  large  numbers  of  people  live  in  close  proximity  than 
when  they  are  separated,  for  otherwise  cities  would  never 
come  into  existence  and  the  population  would  remain  scat- 
tered on  small  farms. 

City  building  is,  to  a  very  great  extent,  an  engineering 
undertaking.  The  architect  and  the  landscape  architect  co- 
operate with  the  civil  engineer,  the  electrical  engineer,  the 
mechanical  and  sanitary  engineer  in  the  construction  of 
the  city.  Their  work  includes  street  construction,  electric 
traction,  surface,  elevated  and  subway;  city  lighting,  bridges, 
quays,  docks,  piers,  harbors,  and  waterways,  railway  termi- 
nals, central  light  and  power  plants,  electric  current  distribu- 
tion, gas  and  central  heating  plants,  aqueducts  and  water 
filtration  and  distribution,  sewage  systems  and  garbage  col- 
lection and  disposal,  slaughter  houses  and  market  places, 
public  baths  and  recreation  places  and  piers,  heating,  light- 
ing and  ventilation  of  public  and  private  buildings,  tele- 
phone, telegraph,  police  and  fire-alarm  systems  and  numerous 
similar  problems. 

The  work  of  the  engineer  not  only  includes  the  building 
of  the  city,  but  extends  largely  into  many  of  its  operations, 


6  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

such  as  the  handhng  of  freight  and  traffic  both  on  land  and 
water,  the  operation  of  electric  transportation  systems,  sur- 
face, elevated  and  subway;  electric  lighting,  power,  heating, 
and  gas  plants,  water  works,  sewage  and  refuse  disposal, 
street  construction,  and  the  operation  of  many  of  the  en- 
gineering works  which  they  are  first  called  upon  to  con- 
struct. 

Thus  the  numerous  and  important  problems  of  the  city 
are  calling  forth  a  new  and  specialized  form  of  engineering 
in  America.  It  is  customary  to  include  the  detail  engineer- 
ing work  of  the  city  in  the  province,  for  the  most  part,  of 
the  civil  engineer,  who  for  such  purposes  is  often  called  the 
municipal  engineer.  The  field  of  engineering  in  the  building 
and  rebuilding  of  cities,  however,  is  of  a  much  more  compre- 
hensive and  fundamental  character,  and  deserves  a  special 
designation,  such,  for  example,  as  city  or  civic  engineering. 
A  special  course  of  training  for  the  civic  engineer  should  be 
offered  by  universities  and  the  civic  engineer  should  make 
a  thorough  study  of  all  the  problems  of  the  city. 

No  greater  field  of  usefulness  is  open  to  the  engineer  and 
the  subject  is  one  that  demands  the  most  exhaustive  study. 
At  the  present  time,  a  great  awakening  is  taking  place  in  the 
United  States  on  the  subject  of  city  planning.  The  great 
benefits  to  be  derived  are  beginning  to  be  appreciated  and 
civic  pride  is  taking  form  in  American  cities.  But  at  the 
same  time  many  blunders  are  being  made  and  great  waste 
incurred  by  ill-advised  plans  of  improvement.  A  commis- 
sion of  prominent  citizens  is  usually  appointed,  when  the 
subject  is  taken  up,  and  after  a  trip  to  Europe,  they  return 
with  recommendations,  which  after  being  modified  to  allow 
a  rich  harvest  of  graft  on  the  part  of  politicians,  are  finally 
put  into  effect  with  results  such  as  could  have  been 
expected. 

Civic  engineering,  however,  is  not  a  subject  to  be  so 
readily  mastered.  Its  theory  and  practice  require  long  and 
thorough  study  and  experience,  and  a  wide  acquaintance 
with  all  that  has  been  done  abroad,  particularly  during  the 
last  thirty  or  forty  years.     The  hasty  remodelling  of  a  city 


i 


WHAT    CITY    PLANNING    IS  7 

by  a  commission  having  only  a  superficial  knowledge  of  the 
subject  is  hable  to  result  in  far  more  harm  than  good. 

To  secure  the  best  results  in  city  planning,  a  competent 
civic  engineer  should  be  placed  in  charge  of  the  work  and  be 
given  sufTicient  time  to  make  a  thorough  study  of  the  city 
and  its  needs  from  an  expert  and  entirely  disinterested  point 
of  view.  He  should,  free  from  influences,  evolve  plans 
which  will  meet  its  requirements  and  enable  it  to  develop 
along  the  best  lines.  This  work,  to  be  properly  performed, 
must  be  done  by  an  expert,  and  by  one  who  has  no  personal 
interest  whatever  in  the  city.  No  commission  of  citizens 
can  approach  the  matter  without  being  swayed  either  by 
self-interest,  personal  considerations  or  prejudice,  and  cer- 
tainly few  such  commissions  could  be  selected  to  contain 
civic  engineers  of  approved  qualifications. 

Although  politicians  come  in  usually  for  nothing  but 
condemnation,  which  is  too  often  richly  deserved,  there  is 
no  good  reason  why,  if  graft  must  exist,  it  should  not  ac- 
complish its  purpose  in  an  artistic  manner.  If  selfish  in- 
terests dictate  a  city's  government,  they  certainly  can  find 
it  just  as  lucrative  to  remodel  the  city  on  the  right  lines  as 
on  the  wrong  lines,  thereby  greatly  increasing  its  prosperity 
and  their  own  subsequent  opportunities  for  activity. 

City  planning,  however,  should  not  be  and  need  not  be 
a  matter  of  politics.  In  Germany,  any  intrusion  of  politics 
in  such  a  matter  would  be  ridiculous,  yet  clever  politicians 
can  improve  a  city  as  lavishly,  if  not  more  so,  and  to  better 
effect,  than  a  misguided  body  of  citizens  after  a  cursory 
attention  to  the  subject  on  a  junket. 

In  selecting  a  civic  engineer,  the  city  should  by  no 
means  restrict  itself  to  engineers  residing  in  the  city  itself, 
for  it  is  seldom  that  competent  engineers  can  be  obtained  if 
this  restriction  is  imposed.  The  city  should  endeavor  to 
obtain  the  best  and  most  competent  civic  engineer  available, 
whether  resident  or  not,  and  no  hesitation  should  be  had  in 
going  to  other  cities  or  even  abroad  to  get  the  right  engineer. 
Indeed  the  demand  for  competent  men  is  so  great  that  they 
command  high  compensation,  which,  however,  is  trivial  in 


8  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

comparison  with  the  work  to  be  accomplished.  While  any 
local  engineer  or  architect  will  tackle  the  job  of  replanning 
the  city,  no  greater  mistake  can  be  made  than  to  place  the 
work  in  such  hands. 

The  example  of  Washington  should  be  followed,  if  neces- 
sary, the  Continental  Government  not  being  misguided  by 
false  patriotism,  but  sending  abroad  for  the  French  engineer 
L'Enfant.  A  number  of  conspicuous  failures  in  city  re- 
planning  are  already  to  be  seen  in  the  United  States,  where 
the  work  has  been  in  charge  of  architects  not  competent  to 
handle  the  problems. 

Every  city,  too,  should  have  on  file  a  comprehensive  plan 
for  its  ultimate  improvement.  Practically  all  buildings  be- 
come obsolete  in  thirty  or  forty  years.  With  the  ultimate 
city  plan  laid  out,  permits  for  new  buildings  would  not  be 
allowed  which  would  interfere  with  the  ultimate  plan.  Thus, 
in  an  automatic  manner,  the  city  would  gradually  shed  its 
old  structures,  and  presently  appear  in  its  permanent  plan, 
with  a  minimum  of  expense  and  inconvenience.  In  addition, 
as  many  cities  will  undoubtedly  be  visited  by  great  fires  in 
the  future,  as  in  the  past,  every  city  should  have  on  hand 
such  a  plan,  so  that  in  the  event  of  a  fire,  the  rebuilding  of 
the  burnt  area  could  be  immediately  undertaken  in  accord- 
ance with  the  comprehensive,  ultimate  plan  already  evolved, 
instead  of  allowing  the  old  sections  to  be  rebuilt  in  the  old 
way  and  with  the  old  mistakes. 

Practical  city  planning  is  not  only  not  necessarily  a  source 
of  expense  to  the  city,  but  is  frequently  a  means  of  profit, 
conferring  its  benefits  not  only  on  the  citizens  directly,  but 
often  relieving  them  of  a  large  part  of  the  burdens  of  taxation. 

More  important,  however,  is  the  great  civic  stimulus 
effected.  The  extent  to  which  this  goes  is  far  more  than  is 
realized  by  the  average  observer.  In  Germany,  where  city 
planning  has  reached  its  highest  development,  the  results 
are  most  remarkable.  This  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of 
six  cities  in  Germany,  selected  at  random,  with  six  cities 
in  the  United  States,  which  had  in  1880,  approximately  the 
same  population. 


WHAT  CITY  PLANNING  IS  9 

Cincinnati  has  grown  16.1  per  cent,  27.7  per  cent  and 
42.8  per  cent  respectively  in  the  three  decades,  while  Bres- 
lau's  growth  has  been  22.8  per  cent,  54.9  per  cent  and  87 
per  cent  during  the  same  time.  In  the  thirty  years  Buffalo 
has  increased  173.4  and  Cologne  254.6  per  cent;  New 
Orleans,  56.9  per  cent  and  Dresden  147.1  per  cent;  Louis- 
ville 80.9  per  cent  and  Hanover  146.2  per  cent;  Providence 
113.9  per  cent  and  Nuremberg  234.1  per  cent,  and  Rochester 
144.1  per  cent  and  Chemnitz  237.1  per  cent. 

The  German  cities  have  increased  almost  twice  as  rapidly 
as  the  American  cities,  and  while  all  this  increase  is  not  due 
to  city  plannmg,  a  very  considerable  portion  of  it  may  be  so 
ascribed. 

Mr.  Frederic  C.  Howe,  the  eminent  writer,  in  "City 
Building  in  Germany"  in  Scribner's  Magazine  of  May,  1910, 
states: 

"I  know  of  no  cities  in  the  modern  world  which  compare 
with  those  which  have  arisen  in  Germany  during  the  past 
twenty  years.  There  are  none  in  Great  Britain,  from  which 
country  ofTicial  delegations  are  constantly  crossing  the  North 
Sea  to  study  the  achievements  of  the  German  city.  There 
are  none  in  France,  in  which  country  the  building  of  cities 
has  made  but  little  progress  since  the  achievements  of  Baron 
Haussmann  made  Paris  the  beautiful  city  that  it  is. 

"Important  as  is  the  honesty  and  efTiciency  of  the  Ger- 
man city,  it  is  the  bigness  of  vision,  boldness  of  execution 
and  far-sighted  outlook  on  the  future  that  are  most  amazing. 
The  German  cities  are  thinking  of  to-morrow  as  well  as  of 
to-day,  of  the  generations  to  follow  as  well  as  the  generation 
that  is  now  upon  the  stage,  Germany  alone  sees  the  city 
as  the  center  of  the  civilization  of  the  future,  and  Germany 
alone  is  building  her  cities  so  as  to  make  them  contribute  to 
the  happiness,  health  and  well-being  of  the  people.  This 
seems  to  be  the  primary  consideration.  And  it  is  unique  in 
the  modern  world. 

"Far-sightedness  characterizes  Germany  in  all  things. 
Alone  among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  Germany  is  treating 
the  new  behemoth  of  civilization  as  a  creature  to  be  controlled, 


10  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

and  made  to  serve  rather  than  to  impair  or  destroy  hu- 
manity. 

"The  German  city  is  being  built  on  a  scale  of  generosity 
which  halts  at  no  expense.  Its  public  school  buildings  rival 
in  splendor  the  best  modern  buildings  of  our  great  univer- 
sities. And  the  equipment  is  of  the  same  order.  I  know  of 
no  public  schools,  even  in  New  York  and  Boston,  that  seem 
as  costly  in  their  construction  or  more  complete  in  every 
detail  as  those  of  half  a  dozen  German  cities. 

"The  motive  of  all  this  beauty,  harmony,  business  enter- 
prise and  foresight  is  so  obvious  to  the  German  that  he 
cannot  comprehend  why  it  should  be  questioned.  "Why 
does  a  merchant  erect  a  fine  store-room  or  build  himself  a 
mansion?"  he  asks.  The  German  city  thinks  as  an  indi- 
vidual thinks  about  his  business  and  his  home.  A  finished 
city  attracts  people.  It  brings  manufacturers  and  business. 
People  choose  a  beautiful  city  as  a  place  of  residence.  Vis- 
itors make  pilgrimages  to  it.  Well-educated  children  make 
better  citizens,  better  artisans.  The  street  railways,  gas 
works,  docks  and  other  enterprises  pay  their  way.  They 
even  make  money.  But  more  than  this,  they  are  a  necessary 
part  of  the  city  and  of  course  they  should  be  owned  by  it. 
If  it  be  suggested  that  all  this  is  socialistic,  the  German 
business  man  shrugs  his  shoulders  and  says:  'It  may  be,  but 
it  is  good  business.'  It  is  much  better  than  good  business, 
it  is  good  statesmanship." 

The  arrangement  of  traffic  and  canal  systems,  location  of 
factories,  the  easy  movement  of  products,  the  well-nourished 
condition  and  the  ambition  of  employees,  furnish  a  powerful 
impetus  to  industry.  City  planning  justifies  itself  at  every 
point,  and  America  is  waking  up  to  it  in  a  wonderful  way. 

There  are  already  some  100  cities  adopting  more  or 
less  comprehensive  plans  of  city  planning,  and  the  number  is 
constantly  being  increased. 


CHAPTER  II 
HOW  TO  PROCEED  IN  RE-PLANNING  A  CITY 

To  participate  in  the  re-planning  of  a  city  is  a  civic  duty 
of  the  highest  character.  As  in  no  other  way  can  a  city  be 
so  greatly  benefited,  those  who  take  part  in  such  move- 
ments serve  not  only  their  own  interests,  but  the  interests 
of  the  whole  public. 

The  importance  of  city  planning  is  so  great,  that  once  it 
is  understood,  it  meets  with  unqualified  public  approval,  and 
the  strongest  forces  in  a  community  are  always  in  its  favor. 
It  is  a  movement,  which  as  it  proceeds,  encounters  less  and 
less  opposition,  being  at  once  a  credit  to  the  city  and  to  its 
originators.  It  may  well  become  an  avocation  of  the 
greatest  interest  and  absorption,  and  is  one  of  the  first 
importance,  not  only  to  the  citizen  but  to  the  community. 

Often  a  single  public-spirited  citizen  with  very  little 
expenditure  of  effort  can  initiate  such  a  movement.  At 
an  informal  dinner  the  subject  may  be  brought  up  and  the 
first  steps  taken,  that  is,  to  interest  a  few  men  of  promi- 
nence in  the  idea.  A  committee  may  then  be  judiciously 
selected,  of  those  who  are  willing  to  lend  the  weight  of  their 
names  to  the  undertaking,  while  the  active  interest  is  still 
manifested  by  the  originators. 

A  permanent  organization  of  some  size  is  then  formed, 
which  may  be  known  as  a  Civic  Improvement  or  City  Plan- 
ning Association.  It  should  be  representative  of  the  most 
prominent  members  of  the  different  professions  and  should 
include  in  its  membership  leading  business  men,  bankers, 
lawyers,  editors,  architects,  engineers,  painters,  sculptors, 
educators,  clergymen,  representatives  of  various  public  wel- 
fare societies,  the  mayor  of  the  city,  commissioners  of  public 
works,  and  leading  representatives  of  outlying  communities. 


12  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

The  newspapers  will,  of  course,  have  been  interested  in  the 
movement  from  the  outset. 

The  first  step  is  to  raise  a  fund  for  purposes  of  securing 
plans  and  meeting  the  expenses  of  the  movement,  and  this 
may  be  accomplished  either  by  an  appropriation  made  by 
the  municipal  authorities,  by  donation  from  a  philanthropist 
or  by  a  general  public  subscription.  It  is  advisable  to  have 
as  great  a  general  interest  as  possible  created  in  the  subject, 
as  it  will  thus  receive  a  degree  of  support  which  would  not  be 
accorded  it  were  its  activities  confined  to  a  limited  number. 

One  of  the  best  means  of  arousing  public  interest  in 
city  planning  is  the  giving  of  public  lectures  on  the  subject 
by  experts.  Such  a  lecturer  should  always  be  obtained 
whatever  the  plan  followed,  and  the  lecture  should  be  accom- 
panied by  illustrations  of  what  has  been  done  and  is  con- 
templated in  other  cities.  It  is  possible,  even,  in  some  cases, 
to  obtain  moving  pictures  of  cities  noted  for  their  design, 
such,  for  example,  as  the  moving  pictures  of  Washington. 
These  give  considerable  added  interest  to  the  lectures,  with- 
out involving  much  additional  expense. 

A  preliminary  fund  of  from  two  to  fifty  thousand  dollars, 
according  to  the  size  of  the  city,  should  be  raised.  A  fund 
of  fifty  thousand  dollars  might  profitably  be  expended  as 
follows : 

Fee  of  expert $15,000 

Surveying,   engineering,   estimates  and  office  and 

field  expenses 20,000 

Rent,  stationery,  salaries,  etc 7,000 

Printing  reports 3,000 

Exhibition  of  plans 3,000 

Meetings 2,000 

The  work  of  the  expert  is  to  supervise  the  whole  under- 
taking, to  conceive  the  design  and  develop  the  plan;  to 
direct  the  work  of  the  engineering  staff  and  that  of  the 
ofllce  as  well.  He  is  the  directing  head  of  the  whole  under- 
taking, and  working  in  harmony  with  the  commission,  should 
have  a  free  hand  to  develop  the  best  possible  plan.  In  cases 
where  more  than  one  solution  of  the  problem  of  the  city's 


GATE    OF    \ICTORY,    MUNICH 
Erected  to  ttie  Bavarian  Army  and  modelled  after  the  Triumphal  Arch  of  Conslantine 

at  Rome 


PORTA    NIGRA,    TRIER    (TREVES),  GERMANY 
Well  preserved  city  gale  of  the  Romans,  dating  from  the  second  half  of  the  third  century,  a.d. 


WOOLWORTH    BUILDING    (750    FEET    HIGH) 
Seen   from    archway   of  Municipal   Building,    Sew    York 


HOW  TO   PROCEED    IN  RE-PLANNING  13 

re-planning  is  practicable,  he  should  submit  tentative  plans 
for  the  further  consideration  of  the  commission  and  the 
public. 

The  engineering  cost  includes  estimates  of  the  cost  of 
re-planning,  of  the  cost  of  civic  centers,  buildings,  condemna- 
tion proceedings,  new  street  plans  and  estimates  of  the  prob- 
able cost  of  the  entire  work,  in  pursuance  of  the  different 
schemes  submitted. 

When  the  work  of  the  expert  has  been  completed,  a 
public  exhibition  should  be  held  of  the  drawings  and  plans, 
and  they  should  be  subjected  to  the  criticism  of  the  public 
at  large  and  discussed  in  public  meetings  and  in  the 
press. 

The  commission  should  then  decide  upon  the  plan  to  be 
adopted,  and  the  work  then  should  be  actually  undertaken. 

If  the  original  appropriation  is  made  by  the  city,  the 
commission  would  at  that  time  have  been  made  a  legal  body 
and  part  of  the  city  government,  but  if  the  original  fund  is 
raised  in  another  manner,  it  is  unnecessary  for  the  commis- 
sion to  become  a  legal  body  until  the  city  actually  under- 
takes the  work,  when  a  smaller  board  may  be  formed  having 
the  necessary  legal  powers  to  carry  on  the  work,  the  original 
commission  still  existing  as  an  informal  body  for  sustaining 
public  interest  and  advancing  the  cause. 

A  good  example  of  how  such  a  body  may  be  given  legal 
power  is  to  be  seen  in  the  city  charter  of  Seattle,  Wash. 
It  is  as  follows: 

Article  XXV 

"Section  1.  That  there  be  and  hereby  is  created  a 
commission  to  be  known  as  a  Municipal  Plans  Commission, 
which  shall  consist  of  twenty-one  members.  It  shall  be  the 
duty  of  said  commission  to  procure  plans  for  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  city  with  a  view  to  such  expansion  as  may  meet 
probable  future  demands.  These  plans  shall  take  into  con- 
sideration the  extension  of  the  City  and  City  works  into 
adjacent  territory;  improvement  and  changes  in  public 
utilities  and  lines  of  transportation  by  surface,  underground 


14  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

and  water;  the  location,  widths  and  grades  of  arterial  high- 
ways necessary  for  the  best  treatment  of  the  city;  the  de- 
velopment of  the  water  front  with  its  sea  wall  and  wharves; 
the  location  of  public  buildings  and  municipal  decorations; 
and  such  further  extensions  of  and  additions  to  the  park 
and  boulevard  systems  of  the  City  as  it  may,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Park  Board,  find  advisable. 

"Section  2.  The  members  of  such  commission  shall 
be  citizens  of  the  City  of  Seattle  and  shall  be  chosen  in  the 
following  manner,  to-wit:  Three  shall  be  elected  from 
the  City  Council  by  its  members;  one  shall  be  elected 
from  the  Board  of  Public  Works  by  its  members;  in 
the  same  way  one  member  shall  be  elected  from  the  King 
County  Commissioners;  one  from  the  Seattle  Board  of 
Education  and  one  from  the  Seattle  Park  Commission.  The 
other  members  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Mayor  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner,  to  wit:  Each  organization  hereinafter  named 
shall  nominate  two  of  its  members  and  the  Mayor  shall 
appoint  one  of  the  two  so  nominated.  The  interests  repre- 
senting the  water  front  owners,  steam  railway  companies, 
street  railway  companies  and  marine  transportation  com- 
panies shall  organize,  respectively,  by  mass  meetings,  at 
which  a  chairman  and  secretary  shall  be  elected,  and  such 
officials  shall  certify  to  the  Mayor  the  two  names  elected  at 
such  meetings.  The  call  for  such  meetings  shall  be  given 
publicity  in  the  press  of  the  city. 

"The  Pacific  Northwest  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 

"The  Washington  State  Chapter  of  American  Institute 
of  Architects. 

"The  Seattle  Chamber  of  Commerce. 

"The  Seattle  Commercial  Club. 

"The  Manufacturers'  Association. 

"The  Central  Labor  Council. 

"The  Seattle  Clearing  House  Association. 

"The  Seattle  Bar  Association. 

"The  Seattle  Real  Estate  Association. 

"The  Carpenters'  Union. 

"The  Water  Front  Owners. 


HOW  TO   PROCEED    IN  RE-PLANNING  15 

"The  Steam  Railway  Companies. 

"The  Marine  Transportation  Companies. 

"The  Street  Railway  Companies. 

"In  case  of  failure  of  any  of  said  organizations  or  in- 
terests to  nominate,  then  these  members  are  to  be  appointed 
by  the  Mayor,  and  each  shall  be  chosen  for  his  known 
qualifications  with  respect  to  the  interests  which  shall  have 
failed  to  certify  its  nominations. 

"Section  3,  Any  member  of  such  commission  may  hold 
any  other  oflTice  whether  federal,  state,  county  or  municipal 
or  may  be  an  employee  of  the  city  or  of  any  other  depart- 
ment, commission,  board,  bureau,  institution  or  office  of  the 
city  government,  and  by  becoming  a  member  of  such  com- 
mission, no  person  shall  forfeit  any  other  public  office  or 
employment  which  he  may  hold  at  the  time  he  becomes  a 
member. 

"Section  4.  Before  entering  upon  the  duties  of  their 
office,  all  members  shall  qualify  by  taking  the  oath  of  office 
prescribed  for  city  officials  in  the  City  Charter,  and  shall 
organize  by  electing  a  president  and  secretary. 

"Section  5.  After  the  organization  of  such  commission, 
any  member  except  a  state,  county  or  city  official,  who  shall 
be  absent  from  the  meetings  of  said  commission  for  a  period 
of  more  than  thirty  days,  without  being  excused  therefrom, 
shall  ipso  facto  forfeit  his  oflTice;  and  any  vacancies  caused 
either  by  resignation,  death  or  by  reason  of  unexcused  ab- 
sence, shall  be  filled  by  appointment  in  the  manner  provided 
for  in  Section  Two  (2)  of  this  Resolution;  such  new  com- 
missioner to  be  chosen  to  represent  the  same  body  as  that 
represented  by  the  one  causing  the  vacancy.  The  failure 
of  a  city  official  to  retain  his  office  in  the  city  government 
shall  be  considered  a  vacancy  on  said  commission  and  his 
successor  shall  be  selected  as  hereinafter  provided. 

"Section  6.  All  members  shall  serve  without  com- 
pensation. 

"Section  7.  There  shall  be  furnished  to  said  commission 
suitable  quarters  for  the  carrying  on  of  its  investigations, 
together  with   such   engineering   and   clerical   assistance   as 


16  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

may  be  necessary,  and  the  commission  shall,  as  soon  as  prac- 
ticable after  its  organization,  employ  one  or  more,  but  in 
no  case  to  exceed  three,  men  of  national  reputation,  recog- 
nized as  authorities  in  city  planning  to  prepare  a  compre- 
hensive plan  under  its  direction  and  subject  to  its  approval 
and  adoption,  embracing  in  its  scope  the  entire  area  of  the 
city  and  such  contiguous  territory  as  is  comprehended  in 
Section  One  (1)  of  this  Resolution.  The  final  plans  shall  be 
submitted  to  the  commission  for  approval,  and  shall  be  re- 
garded as  approved,  unless  rejected  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of 
said  commissioners  within  thirty  (30)  days  after  the  same 
shall  have  been  filed  with  the  commission.  The  Municipal 
Plans  Commission  shall  hold  regular  meetings;  at  least  one 
such  meeting  every  two  weeks.  Upon  the  conclusion  of 
sittings  of  said  commission  it  shall  submit  its  findings  in  full 
to  the  Mayor  and  the  City  Council  of  Seattle  in  printed 
form,  together  with  plans.  Said  report  shall  be  presented 
to  the  Mayor  and  City  Council  not  later  than  September  30, 
1911,  and  they  shall  cause  the  recommendations  of  the  com- 
mission to  be  submitted  to  the  people  at  the  next  general  or 
special  election. 

"Section  8.  That  if  a  majority  of  the  voters  voting 
thereon  shall  favor  the  adoption  of  said  City  Plan  so  re- 
ported, it  shall  be  adopted  and  shall  be  the  plan  to  be 
followed  by  all  City  officials  in  the  growth,  evolution  and 
development  of  the  said  City  of  Seattle,  until  modified,  or 
amended  at  some  subsequent  election. 

"Section  9.  There  is  hereby  created  a  fund  to  be 
known  as  'Municipal  Plans  Commission  Fund,'  which  shall 
consist  of  a  tax  levy  to  be  made  during  the  year  1910  as 
other  taxes  are  levied,  of  one-fourth  (%)  of  a  mill  on  the 
dollar,  but  no  other  or  further  levy  or  payment  into  said  fund 
shall  ever  be  made.  The  Municipal  Plans  Commission  shall 
have  exclusive  power  to  pay  out  moneys  from  such  fund  for 
any  and  all  purposes  specified  in  Section  One  (1)  hereof,  and 
shall,  on  or  before  the  10th  day  of  August  of  the  year  1910, 
prepare  and  submit  to  the  City  Council  for  approval  and 
adoption,  an  estimate  of  the  amount  of  money  which  may 


HOW  TO   PROCEED    IN  RE-PLANNING  17 

be  required  for  its  purpose,  in  conformity  with  Chapter  138 
of  the  Laws  of  State  of  Washington,  Session  1909. 

"Section  10.  All  expenditures  on  account  of  work  done 
shall  be  made  upon  vouchers  approved  by  a  majority  vote 
of  the  Municipal  Plans  Commission  and  signed  by  its  presi- 
dent and  secretary.  Each  voucher  shall,  when  accompanied 
by  a  detailed  statement  of  such  expenditures,  be  certified  to 
the  City  Comptroller,  and  shall  be  paid  by  the  Treasurer  out 
of  any  money  in  the  Municipal  Plans  Commission  Fund  not 
otherwise  appropriated.  Said  commission  may  anticipate 
the  revenues  to  be  paid  into  said  fund  under  the  tax  levy 
herein  provided  for,  by  the  issuance  of  its  warrants  against 
said  fund,  to  provide  money  for  the  necessary  expenses  of 
said  commission  prior  to  the  availability  of  the  funds  to  be 
raised  by  such  levy.  No  expense  against  such  fund  shall  be 
incurred  after  September  30,  1911,  nor  in  excess  of  the  levy 
provided,  and  any  surplus  remaining  in  said  fund  after  said 
date  not  lawfully  appropriated  or  obligated  for  shall  be  by 
ordinance  transferred  into  the  General  Fund." 

An  example  of  a  very  serious  defect  in  city  planning  in  a 
great  many  cities  in  the  United  States,  is  seen  in  paragraph 
ten,  which  provides  that  no  expense  shall  be  incurred  after  a 
certain  fixed  date.  Such  a  provision  brings  the  whole  work 
to  a  stop  at  the  fixed  date,  and  subjects  its  continuance  to 
the  vicissitudes  of  politics,  which  may  cause  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  entire  project  or  a  revising  of  the  original  plans 
for  interested  purposes.  Such  a  commission  should,  in  all 
cases,  have  power  to  continue  the  work  uninterruptedly. 

After  the  plan  is  approved  by  a  body  that  has  final  legal 
authority,  the  city  appropriates  the  money,  and  the  condem- 
nation of  property  and  the  actual  work  proceed. 

By  a  proper  management  of  the  condemnation  proceed- 
ings, the  cost  of  city  planning  can  be  greatly  reduced  or 
even  be  made  a  source  of  immediate,  direct  profit.  This  is 
accomplished  by  giving  the  city  power  to  condemn  not  only 
the  land  actually  needed  for  an  improvement,  but  as  much 
land  adjacent  as  may  be  thought  desirable.     After  the  im- 


18  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

provement  is  made  the  city  re-sells  the  abutting  property  to 
private  users  at  the  prices  which  it  then  commands  by  reason 
of  the  improvement.  The  city  thus  often  realizes  in  re-sales 
more  than  the  cost  of  the  lands  and  the  improvement. 
Speculation  in  real  estate,  inflation  of  values  and  the  enrich- 
ing of  land-owners  at  the  expense  of  the  city  as  a  whole  is 
thus  prevented.  This  is  merely  the  direct  benefit  of  city 
planning,  and  does  not  take  into  consideration  the  enor- 
mous benefits  from  increase  of  population,  industry,  and 
commerce  and  better  living  conditions,  etc.,  as  previously 
outlined. 

The  greatest  piece  of  city  planning  now  in  progress  is  in 
the  city  of  Berlin.  It  has  been  going  on  for  several  years, 
and  will  involve  before  its  completion,  the  expenditure  of 
over  320,000,000  marks  (^80,000,000). 

When  it  comes,  however,  to  the  expenditure  of  such  great 
sums  as  this,  a  more  complete  organization  is  necessary. 
The  main  commission  appoints  sub-committees  composed  of 
engineers  and  architects,  and  such  sub-committees  have 
charge  of  different  portions  of  the  work.  These  committees 
include  Plan  and  Scope,  Streets,  Public  Buildings,  Parks, 
Waterways,  Piers  and  Docks,  Water  Supply,  Sanitation  and 
Drainage,  Lighting,  Public  Baths,  Athletic  and  Recreation 
Grounds,  Municipal  Traction,  Tree  and  Floral  Culture,  etc. 

These  divisions  may  be  anticipated  to  a  certain  extent  in 
the  original  organization  of  the  City  Planning  Commission, 
so  that  when  the  final  organization  is  effected,  the  duties  of 
its  various  constituents  are  fairly  well  understood. 

The  fact  that  a  movement  of  this  character  is  being 
undertaken  by  a  city,  gives  it  no  small  added  prestige.  The 
value  to  the  city  and  the  citizen  which  is  had  in  a  well- 
planned  city  begins  to  make  itself  felt  even  when  the  plans 
are  only  begun.  Such  a  movement  distinguishes  a  city  as 
progressive  and  patriotic  and  brings  about  an  entirely  new 
attitude  of  thought,  both  of  the  citizen  towards  the  city  and 
of  the  citizens  of  other  cities  toward  it. 

No  work  any  more  important  or  beneficial  to  a  city  can 
be  undertaken  by  any  public-spirited  citizen,  than  to  initiate 


HOW  TO   PROCEED    IN   RE-PLANNING  19 

or  participate  in  a  city  planning  movement.  The  work 
done  at  such  a  time  will  remain  as  long  as  the  city  exists  as 
the  achievement  of  its  founders,  and  will  mark  their  genera- 
tion as  one  of  progress  and  enlightenment. 

The  present  condition  of  most  American  cities,  while  de- 
plorable in  itself,  affords  opportunities  for  the  display  of 
disinterested  public  spirit,  which  once  taken  advantage  of, 
will  occupy  the  field  for  all  time.  Paris,  for  example,  can 
afford  no  opportunity  for  a  second  Haussmann  or  Washing- 
ton for  a  second  L' Enfant.  Yet  abnost  every  American  city 
is  crying  for  some  genius  to  come  forward  and  reorganize 
its  stupidly  conceived  and  carelessly  executed  plan  and  for 
public-spirited  citizens  to  initiate  the  work. 

This  is  just  as  important  for  the  small  city  as  the  large 
one,  and  especially  so  for  the  small  city  which  is  growing 
rapidly.  A  proper  plan,  taking  into  consideration  its  possible 
future  expansion,  will  stimulate  its  growth  as  nothing  else 
can,  and  the  development  along  the  plan  will  save  enormous 
expense  later  on. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   CIVIC  CENTER 

Federal,  Municipal,  Traffic,  Social,  Amusement,  Educational 
and  Shipping  Centers 

The  civic  center  is  the  heart  of  a  city's  design.  It  gives 
the  city  its  vital  individuality,  and  imparts  a  sense  of  unity 
and  cohesion  which  cannot  be  obtained  in  any  other  manner. 
A  city  with  a  suitable  civic  center  no  longer  gives  the  im- 
pression of  being  an  accidental  conglomeration  of  buildings; 
it  becomes  an  organized  whole  and  gains  a  new  dignity  and 
a  new  meaning. 

It  is  possible  for  every  city  to  have  a  suitable  plan,  and 
every  city,  if  it  is  not  built  on  such  a  plan,  should  be  re- 
planned  and  re-built.  The  lack  of  design  is  the  outcome  of 
carelessness  and  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  city  authorities 
of  earlier  administrations.  The  absence  of  such  a  plan  is  a 
detrunent  and  an  injury  to  all  who  make  the  city  their  home. 

In  many  cities,  however,  the  legacy  of  carelessness  and 
incompetency  proves  too  heavy  to  be  lifted  immediately, 
while  in  others  the  development  of  an  elaborate  system  is 
beyond  their  financial  resources. 

In  every  case,  however,  it  is  possible  to  adopt  a  plan 
which  may,  little  by  little,  be  carried  into  execution,  with 
ultimately  the  greatest  beneficial  results. 

Not  only  motives  of  civic  pride  and  patriotism  go  to 
make  the  civic  center  desirable,  but  also  the  strongest 
motives  of  social  and  municipal  economy  and  efficiency. 

A  civic  center  should  contain,  except  in  cities  of  large 
size  where  more  than  one  center  is  required,  the  municipal 
and  federal  buildings,  such  as  the  city  hall,  court  house, 
hall  of  records,  post  office,  federal  court  building  and  various 
city  departmental  buildings. 


PALACE    OF    JUSTICE,    MUNICH 
A  well-located  civic  building 


CITY    HALL    AND    MUNICIPAL    COURTS,    CIVIC    CENTER    OF    ST.    LOUIS 


KONIGSBERG,    BISMARK's    MONUMENT    AND    CASTLE 
Thrown  into  view  by  the  curved  street  plan 


THE   CIVIC   CENTER  21 

The  civic  center  should,  of  course,  have  a  central  location 
and  be  readily  accessible  from  all  parts  of  the  city  and  sur- 
rounding suburban  districts.  Several  main  arteries  of  traffic 
should  radiate  from  the  civic  center,  making  it  the  center  of 
the  city's  street  plan,  the  keystone  in  the  arch  of  its  design. 

Such  a  civic  center  can  scarcely  be  too  large  in  area,  and, 
however  expensive  this  may  prove  as  an  initial  outlay,  it  will 
be  of  the  greatest  ultimate  benefit. 

The  civic  center  should  be  of  ample  size  for  several  im- 
portant reasons. 

The  grouped  buildings  gain  greatly  in  effect  when  seen 
from  proper  distances,  and  this  stimulates  the  imagination 
and  impresses  the  observer  with  the  power  and  dignity  of  the 
city. 

The  placing  of  the  buildings  thus  upon  a  large  open  space 
enables  them  to  appear  to  the  best  advantage,  and  they  form 
a  dignified  and  imposing  whole.  This  is  highly  gratifying  in 
a  psychological  sense,  being  the  best  expression  of  what  a 
city  is,  the  point  at  which  man  can  get  furtherest  away  from 
the  isolation  of  rural  life.  In  a  civic  center  the  spirit  of 
collective  life  reaches  its  highest  manifestation.  It  is  thus 
far  more  than  a  mere  collection  of  buildings  around  an  open 
space,  becoming  a  means  of  satisfying  one  of  the  strongest 
of  human  instincts,  that  of  gregariousness. 

A  civic  center  of  large  extent,  in  addition  to  its  artistic 
and  psychological  effect,  is  of  great  value  as  a  place  for  the 
assembling  of  large  numbers  of  people  on  great  public 
occasions.  It  is  a  central  point  for  the  reviewing  of  parades 
and  for  the  reception  of  noted  visitors  to  the  city.  The 
mistake  most  likely  to  be  made  in  planning  a  civic  center  is 
to  make  it  too  small  in  area.  The  expense  of  a  large  center, 
though  usually  very  great,  is  one  that  should  be  incurred  as 
early  as  practicable  in  the  existence  of  the  city,  for  as  the 
value  of  the  ground  increases  constantly,  it  is  an  investment 
which  never  depreciates  in  value.  It  is  a  matter  of  wisdom 
for  a  city  contemplating  civic  improvements  to  purchase  the 
necessary  land  and  lease  it  until  the  time  comes  for  the 
actual  re-building,  ten  or  twenty  years  later. 


22 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


With  buildings  grouped  together  in  a  civic  center,  a  far 
more  magnificent  effect  is  produced  than  is  possible  with  the 
same  buildings  isolated  in  different  parts  of  the  city. 

It  is  also  vastly  more  convenient  to  have  the  city  ad- 
ministrative buildings  grouped  in  one  place,  as  those  having 
business  with  the  different  departments  can  transact  it  much 
more  readily  and  without  the  waste  of  time  that  would  be 


Fig.   1.     GENERAL  PLAN  OF  THE  ROMAN  FORUM  IN  THE  TIMES  OF  THE 

C^SARS 

involved  in  travelling  from  place  to  place  in  the  city,  as  is 
the  case  when  such  buildings  are  located  at  haphazard. 

There  is,  in  fact,  no  valid  argument  against  the  formation 
of  civic  centers  and  everything  in  their  favor.  The  reason 
they  exist  in  so  few  American  cities  is  largely  because  of  lack 
of  education  on  the  subject,  and  the  consequent  ignorance  of 
the  advantages  arising  from  this  form  of  construction,  for 
which  architects  and  engineers  are  largely  responsible. 

The  political  organization  of  cities  has  also  had  a  share 
in  this  failure  to  have  cities  properly  planned,  since  the  work 
of  city  planning  is  one  that  requires  years  for  its  completion, 
and  the  constant  changes  of  administration,  with  hostility  in 
one  to  the  achievements  of  the  previous  one,  or  of  one  of 


THE   CIVIC   CENTER  23 

another  party,  has  operated  to  the  great  disadvantage  of 
American  cities. 

Lack  of  appreciation  of  the  beauties  of  architecture  has 
also  contributed  to  the  present  heterogeneous  aspect  of  our 
cities,  and  ignorance  of  their  art  on  the  part  of  architects  has 
been  largely  responsible  for  this.  Anybody  who  can  draw  a 
few  lines  on  paper  is  at  liberty  to  set  himself  up  as  an  archi- 
tect, and  real  study  of  this  great  art  is  much  neglected,  so 
much  so  in  fact  that  the  average  citizen  could  by  no  means 
name  three  of  the  leading  architects  of  the  country. 

The  proper  location  of  the  civic  center  is  as  important 
as  its  size  and  arrangement,  and  in  selecting  its  location, 
a  long  look  into  the  future  should  be  taken. 

Even  at  the  expense  of  some  present  inconvenience  it 
should  be  placed  near  what  will  be  the  center  of  the  city, 
when  it  reaches  a  certain  growth.  The  location  of  the  civic 
center  may  thus  give  direction  to  the  growth  of  the  city 
which  might  otherwise  develop  along  lines  of  least  resistance 
or  as  encouraged  by  real  estate  speculators. 

The  civic  center  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  easily  acces- 
sible to  all  parts  of  the  city,  and  if  necessary,  new  avenues 
and  streets  should  be  cut  through  to  afford  the  proper 
approach.  It  should  be  conveniently  placed  with  reference 
to  transportation  lines,  but  no  transportation  line  should 
penetrate  it,  passing  at  most  along  the  sides.  Nor  should 
traffic  from  bridges,  elevated  stations,  subways,  ferries  or 
railway  stations  be  discharged  directly  into  the  civic  center, 
such  terminals  being  more  advantageously  placed  adjacent 
to  it.  It  should  not,  thus,  be  an  artery  of  traffic,  but  so  to 
speak,  the  center  of  the  whirlpool  of  the  city's  transpor- 
tation. 

The  buildings  to  be  included  in  a  civic  center  should  be 
the  city  hall,  court  house,  hall  of  records,  post  office  and 
federal  court,  custom  house,  administrative  buildings  for  the 
various  city  departments,  and  possibly  some  buildings  of  a 
commercial  character,  either  in  the  civic  center  or  adjacent 
thereto  and  contributing  to  its  general  effect,  such  as  a 
chamber  of  commerce,  banks,  and  life  insurance  buildings. 


24  CITY   PLANNING   AND   MAINTENANCE 

The  leading  principle  of  the  design  of  a  civic  center  is 
that  one  of  the  buildings  should  dominate  the  rest.  This 
should  usually  be  the  city  hall  or  court  house.  The  other 
buildings  should  be  in  character  and  style  related  to  the 
dominant  building,  but  not  of  such  size  or  outline  as  to 
detract  from  its  importance,  as  it  should  be,  in  an  artistic 
sense,  protective  of  the  others.  Another  important  principle 
of  the  civic  center  is  balance,  the  buildings  being  so  propor- 
tioned and  placed  with  reference  to  each  other,  that  their 
masses  and  outlines  produce  a  pleasing  effect.  The  design 
of  a  civic  center  is  indeed  an  artistic  problem  of  the  first 
magnitude,  in  which  the  principles  of  art  are  manifested  on  a 
great  scale.  It  is  a  painting  with  the  sky  and  the  city  as  a 
background,  a  sculpture  in  masses,  and  it  should  have  unity, 
strength,  feeling,  completeness,  balance  and  splendor.  The 
art  of  the  civic  architect  is  thus  one  in  which  the  greatest 
talents  may  find  opportunities  for  expression  not  obtainable 
in  any  other  art. 

In  cities  of  considerable  size,  it  is  advisable  to  have 
additional  civic  centers  to  supplement  the  principal  center. 

Such  additional  centers  may  be  of  a  somewhat  different 
character.  For  example,  there  might  be  a  federal  center, 
containing  the  post  office,  custom  house  and  federal  court 
house.  Other  centers  might  be  a  traffic  center,  a  social  cen- 
ter, an  educational  center,  an  amusement  center  and  a 
shipping  center.  In  cities  of  very  large  size,  a  third  class  of 
centers,  more  numerous,  and  of  a  composite  character  could 
be  provided. 

A  traffic  center  would  be  composed  of  one  or  several  of 
the  railway  terminals.  These  should  be  located  in  near 
proximity,  on  civic  center  lines  if  it  is  not  feasible  to  have 
a  union  station,  so  that  a  ready  transfer  of  passengers  may 
be  accomplished.  In  the  traffic  center  should  also  be  located 
terminals  of  the  street  railways  and  also,  particularly,  termi- 
nals of  suburban  electric  lines.  A  center  of  this  kind  is  of 
the  greatest  utility  and  convenience,  and  is  especially  of  the 
greatest  service  to  visitors,  enabling  them  to  find  their  way 
about  without  loss  of  time.    The  first  impression   of  the 


THE   CIVIC   CENTER  25 

visitor  is  that  received  from  the  traffic  center,  and  from  the 
means  provided  whereby  he  can  conveniently  reach  his 
destination,  which  is  not  in  reaUty  the  railway  station,  but 
the  place  in  which  he  is  to  live. 

It  is  therefore  important  to  have  such  a  center  properly 
arranged,  and  to  so  direct  city  traffic  lines  that  all  portions 
of  the  city  are  readily  accessible  from  the  traffic  center. 

The  social  center  should  be  located  nearer  the  residential 
portion  of  the  city,  and  should  consist  of  museum  buildings, 
art  galleries,  a  library  and  an  exhibition  hall,  suitable  for 
expositions  of  various  kinds.  The  buildings  of  the  social 
center  should  be  of  a  somewhat  different  character  from  the 
buildings  of  the  municipal  group,  indicating  their  purpose  by 
being  less  severe,  and  more  delicate  in  architectural  treatment. 

An  amusement  center  of  the  proper  kind  is  difficult  to 
establish  in  America,  owing  to  the  fact  that  theatres  are  all 
private  ventures.  Abroad,  the  state  and  municipal  owned 
theatres,  and  the  ability  of  the  cities  to  regulate  the  design 
of  other  buildings,  enable  such  centers  to  be  readily  estab- 
lished. 

It  is  the  practice  in  America  to  build  theatres  in  the 
middle  of  blocks  with  but  a  narrow  entrance  facade  on  the 
street,  or  where  the  theatre  has  some  street  frontage,  to 
confine  it  to  a  rather  flat  facade  usually  of  an  uninteresting 
design,  with  small  stores  along  the  street.  One  of  the  ugliest 
of  amusement  buildings  in  America  is  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  which  should  be  the  finest.  While  it  occupies  an 
entire  block,  it  is  of  a  barn-like  appearance,  houses  a  restau- 
rant and  a  bank  on  the  Broadway  front,  has  apartments  to 
let  and  on  the  Seventh  Avenue  side  is  graced  by  a  corru- 
gated iron  lean-to,  from  which  is  suspended  a  canvas  cur- 
tain, the  recess  thus  formed  being  used  to  store  scenery. 

Under  proper  regulations,  the  theatres  of  a  city  should  be 
arranged  around  a  square  or  in  a  well-planned  district,  and 
each  should  be  an  independent  building  of  a  design  approved 
by  an  art  commission  prior  to  its  erection.  The  amusement 
center  might  also  contain  restaurants,  concert  halls  and 
lecture  halls,  all  arranged  on  a  definite  plan  and  properly 


26  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

related  to  each  other.  Suitable  provision  should  also  be 
made  for  the  parking  of  automobiles  during  performances, 
and  this  regulation  might  even  proceed  to  the  time  of  dis- 
missal of  the  audiences,  which  could  readily  be  varied  within 
certain  Ihnits,  to  prevent  congestion  in  the  streets,  such  as 
produces  so  much  confusion,  for  example,  in  the  New  York 
City  theatre  district,  which  is  in  all  respects  a  triumph  of  the 
haphazard,  and  a  nightmare  of  the  unregulated. 

In  this  district  until  recently,  no  restrictions  other  than 
those  of  a  commercial  nature  have  had  any  consideration, 
and  the  result  is  that  the  theatres  are  stuck  anywhere  that 
room  can  be  found.  The  recent  restriction  is  one  relating 
to  safety  in  case  of  fire,  and  is  the  requirement  of  a  narrow 
alley  all  around  a  theatre,  which  makes  the  theatres  even 
more  unsightly  than  before. 

In  illumination,  huge  and  glaring  electric  signs  have  been 
permitted  to  litter  the  roofs  of  buildings  having  any  position 
of  advantage,  and  with  unexampled  effrontery,  to  make 
night  hideous  with  their  intermittent  flashings  of  recom- 
mendations of  various  articles  of  commerce  and  trade.  All 
this  is  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  small  consideration 
private  enterprise  has  for  public  interest  when  it  is  allowed 
to  have  its  own  way.  Instead  of  a  stately  and  beautiful 
square  with  imposing  structures,  suitably  illuminated,  there 
exists  a  confused  mass  of  buildings  with  theatres  sandwiched 
into  all  sorts  of  corners,  and  a  great  number  of  obnoxious 
electrical  signs  stuck  everywhere,  each  trying  to  be  uglier 
and  more  annoying  than  its  neighbor. 

This,  the  far-famed  Great  White  Way,  which  might  be 
more  properly  called  a  great  blight  way,  yet  all  cities 
throughout  the  country,  even  to  the  smallest,  are  doing  their 
best  in  imitation,  strong  in  the  belief  that  they  are  engaged 
in  a  most  praiseworthy  undertaking,  and  receiving  no  lack 
of  encouragement  in  the  good  cause  from  the  electric  lighting 
companies  and  manufacturers  of  electric  lamps. 

A  theatre  center  might  be  encouraged  in  American  cities, 
by  a  remission  of  taxation  on  buildings  which  when  erected 
had  the  sanction  of  the  Municipal  Art  Commission  of  the 


THE   CIVIC   CENTER 


27 


city.  The  reduction  in  running  costs  could  be  capitalized 
by  the  owners  to  enable  them  to  produce  a  beautiful  build- 
ing, which  would  still  be  able  to  compete  with  the  uglier  and 


Fig.  2.   forum  at  pompeii 
/.   Jupiler  Temple;  II.   Market  Hall  for  Household  Goods;  III.  Court;  IV.   Temple 
of  Vespasian;    V.   Market  Hall  for  Woolen  Goods;    VI.    Comitium;    VII,   VIII,  IX. 
Administrative  Offices;   X.   Basilica;  XI.    Temple  of  Apollo;   XII.   Market  Hall. 

cheaper  ones  placed  to  utilize  low-priced  land.  This  would 
be  a  form  of  subsidy  quite  as  useful  as  the  present  general 
subsidizing  of  churches  by  remission  of  taxation,  a  subsidy 
which  enables  churches  to  be  placed  to  great  advantage. 

An  education  center  could  be  composed  of  a  college  or 
seminary,  public  high  school,  school  administration  building, 
a  library  and  a  medical  college  and  hospital.  The  large 
universities   of   the   United   States   with   their   grounds  and 


28       "      CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

buildings  are  in  effect  education  centers,  and  in  their  arrange- 
ment of  buildings  are  considerably  superior  to  most  European 
universities.  This  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that 
commercial  considerations  do  not  enter  into  educational 
affairs.  Columbia  University  in  New  York  forms  a  notable 
educational  center  and  if  a  broad  avenue  were  cut  through 
to  relate  it  to  St.  Luke's  Hospital  and  the  now  building 
Cathedral  of  St.  John,  this  section  of  the  city  would  be 
greatly  improved  and  unified.  New  York  University  with 
its  Hall  of  Fame  and  other  buildings,  on  University  Heights, 
is  a  further  educational  center  of  national  importance  enjoy- 
ing greater  area  than  Columbia,  though  more  distantly 
placed,  while  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York,  though 
less  extensive,  is  also  a  striking  and  admirable  center. 

In  this  respect  New  York  is  fortunate,  though  in  the 
location  of  its  Public  Library  and  museums,  which  are  iso- 
lated and  in  gridiron  blocks,  it  suffers  from  the  stupidity  of 
the  originators  of  its  street  plan,  which  was  modelled  by  city 
ofTicials  then  in  charge,  after  a  gravel  sieve. 

Cities  thus  in  which  universities  are  located,  and  particu- 
larly cities  which  are  capitals  of  states,  have  unusual  possi- 
bilities, and  may  easily  be  made  architecturally  interesting, 
while  other  cities,  devoted  principally  to  commerce,  have  not 
the  same  occasion  for  striking  buildings. 

An  instance  of  this  is  seen  in  the  dilTerence  between 
Hartford  and  Bridgeport,  in  Connecticut,  cities  of  nearly 
equal  size,  but  of  an  entirely  different  appearance;  the 
capitol  building  at  Hartford  and  a  fairly  well  arranged 
central  portion  being  much  more  beautiful  than  the  confu- 
sion of  Bridgeport,  or  even  New  Haven,  where  the  buildings 
of  Yale  University  offer  the  only  relief,  and  no  very  great 
relief  at  that. 

A  civic  center  of  the  greatest  utility  is  the  shipping 
center,  which  for  freight  and  produce  compares  with  the 
trafTic  center  for  travellers.  A  shipping  center  may  be 
placed  with  advantage  at  the  water  front,  and  should  contain 
railway  freight  terminals,  piers  and  docks,  municipal  market 
houses,    appraisers'  stores,    warehouses   and   buildings    of   a 


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'^  '-A  1    '      "Mill  l'^=i^'^  ^^'[l    j/'- 


CIVIC    CENTER    PROJECT    FOR    THE    CITY    OF    SEATTLE 
Part  of  the  Great  Ground  Plan 


THE   CIVIC   CENTER  29 

similar  character.  In  planning  a  shipping  center,  it  should 
be  made  spacious  in  the  extreme,  for  convenience  of  drayage, 
as  vehicular  traffic  becomes  very  quickly  congested  if  suffi- 
cient street  room  is  not  provided.  New  York  has  an  ap- 
proximation of  such  a  center  in  West  Street,  a  very  wide 
thoroughfare  upon  which  the  North  River  piers  abut,  and 
near  which  is  a  large  freight  station.  In  a  properly  planned 
shipping  center,  the  railroad  tracks  should  go  directly  into 
the  piers,  for  convenience  of  transferring  freight,  as  will  be 
further  referred  to. 

A  division  should  be  made  between  freight  intended  for 
use  in  the  city  itself  and  that  which  comes  to  the  city  as  a 
point  of  distribution.  This  is  a  problem  which  very  seriously 
affects  cities  which  are  railroad  centers,  and  in  Chicago  such 
a  division  is  proposed.  In  that  city,  the  railroads  run 
directly  into  the  city  and  a  great  part  of  the  tonnage  is 
unloaded,  taken  to  warehouses  and  stored  until  required 
for  use  in  other  cities.  A  great  amount  of  freight  also 
goes  through  the  city  without  breaking  bulk,  the  cars  being 
switched  from  one  railroad  to  another.  This  transfer  of 
traffic  occupies  much  of  the  capacity  of  the  city's  tracks  and 
streets  and  causes  great  and  unnecessary  confusion.  To 
avoid  this  and  relieve  congestion,  it  is  proposed  to  establish 
a  great  freight  and  warehousing  center  southwest  of  the 
city,  where  transfer  of  freight  cars  from  one  railroad  to 
another  may  be  effected  without  delay  and  at  little  cost. 
As  about  95  per  cent  of  the  freight  traffic  of  Chicago  is 
handled  by  rail  and  but  5  per  cent  by  water,  the  location  of 
such  a  center  can  with  advantage  be  placed  away  from  the 
lake  front.  An  enormous  saving  will  result  to  all  concerned, 
the  railroads  transferring  their  cars  with  despatch,  merchants 
and  wholesalers  loading  and  unloading  by  machinery  where 
the  work  is  now  done  by  hand  and  the  public  being  relieved 
of  the  noise,  wear  and  tear  and  nuisance  of  much  of  the 
present  street  traffic,  and  the  presence  of  large  numbers  of 
coal-consmning  locomotives. 

^Esthetic  considerations  do  not,  of  course,  enter  so  largely 
into  the  construction  of  a  shipping  center  as  they  do  in  other 


30  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

centers,  the  problem  being  more  one  of  traffic  engineering. 
The  buildings,  however,  may  profitably  be  designed  along 
the  lines  that  have  proven  efficient,  and  at  the  same  time 
preserve  a  certain  massiveness  and  sense  of  utility  which 
will  give  the  center  its  own  unity  and  individuality. 

In  addition  to  the  principal  centers  thus  outlined,  another 
kind  of  center  is  of  great  utility,  and  this  may  be  called  a 
regional  center,  that  is  the  center  of  a  certain  district  or 
region  of  a  city.  Such  centers  tend  to  develop  themselves 
under  normal  conditions,  but  not  being  planned  in  advance, 
their  usefulness  and  attractiveness  are  far  less  than  should  be 
the  case. 

Such  regional  centers  should  be  located  at  different  points 
throughout  the  city,  at  some  distance  from  the  main  centers, 
and  they  should  not  be  devoted  to  specific  purposes,  but 
should  in  effect  be  unified  centers. 

Such  a  center  would  contain,  for  example,  a  court  build- 
ing, a  bank,  a  high  school,  branch  library,  theatre,  museum, 
concert  hall  and  other  similar  structures,  arranged  with 
reference  to  each  other  and  with  due  allowance  made  for 
the  future  growth  of  the  city. 

Civic  centers,  with  such  additional  regional  centers,  serve 
to  render  knowledge  of  localities  in  a  city  easy  of  acquisi- 
tion. The  child  at  school  soon  learns  the  location  of  the 
centers  and  each  center,  having  its  own  individuality,  is 
readily  remembered.  Strangers  may  similarly  soon  gain  an 
acquaintance  with  the  city.  The  psychological  effect  of 
civic  centers  is  thus  to  give  the  city  an  individuality  and  to 
fix  it  in  the  mind  as  a  well-ordered  whole,  instead  of  as  an 
accidental  conglomeration  of  buildings. 

The  advantage  of  the  planning  of  a  city  on  the  principle 
of  civic  centers  is  indeed  so  great,  that  no  other  kind  of  plan 
receives  any  consideration.  The  fundamental  principle  of 
city  planning  is  the  civic  center,  and  when  the  center  has 
been  properly  planned  and  placed,  the  remainder  of  the 
design  is  readily  worked  out. 

The  enormous  importance  to  a  city  of  being  properly 
planned  may  be  appreciated  by  considering  the  beauties  of 


THE   CIVIC   CENTER  31 

the  great  cities  of  Europe:  Athens,  Venice,  Florence,  Rome, 
Nice,  Vienna,  Budapest,  Dresden,  BerUn,  Munich,  Diissel- 
dorf,  Moscow,  Antwerp,  Paris,  London  and  other  noted 
places.  Their  fame  is  largely,  if  not  wholly  due,  to  the  fact 
that  they  contain  structures  of  beauty  properly  massed  and 
grouped,  and  that  their  streets  are  laid  out  in  an  orderly 
manner.  If  the  important  buildings  in  those  cities  were 
isolated  and  unrelated,  they  would  never  have  enjoyed  the 
fame  and  dignity  which  their  names  imply. 

American  cities,  though  not  as  old,  are  not  inferior,  in 
size,  commerce  or  wealth,  but  who  ever  goes  to  Jersey  City, 
a  larger  city  than  Diisseldorf;  to  Nashville,  greater  than 
Athens;  to  Detroit,  with  a  larger  population  than  Rome;  to 
St.  Louis,  almost  the  equal  of  Budapest;  to  Chicago,  greater 
than  Vienna  or  Berlin;  to  Baltimore  or  Pittsburg,  superior 
to  Dresden;  to  Minneapolis,  larger  than  Antwerp,  or  to  any 
of  a  score  of  American  cities,  to  see  any  sights  worth  seeing? 

American  cities  thus  lack  distinction  and  interest.  With 
the  exception  of  Washington  and  the  skyscrapers  of  New 
York,  no  tourist  ever  seeks  out  an  American  city  as  a  point 
of  interest  in  itself. 

Finding  nothing  at  home  to  interest  them,  American 
visitors  flock  abroad,  while  Europeans  themselves,  much 
greater  travellers  than  Americans,  are  constantly  visiting  and 
studying  their  own  cities.  A  great  stream  of  travel  would 
flow  to  America  from  abroad  and  an  enormous  and  enlighten- 
ing amount  of  travel  at  home  would  result  if  American  cities 
were  worth  seeing.  Such  travel  is  not  only  highly  profitable 
to  certain  business  interests  of  the  cities  visited  but  has  a 
great  educational  effect  on  the  travellers,  who  are  better  able 
to  improve  their  own  cities  after  seeing  the  accomplishments 
of  others.  With  the  exceptions  noted,  Washington  and  New 
York,  and  a  few  natural  beauties,  such  as  Niagara  Falls, 
Mammoth  Cave  and  Yellowstone  Park,  the  traveller  in 
America  is  utterly  at  a  loss  to  know  where  to  go  to  see  any- 
thing worth  while. 

Even  the  smallest  cities  abroad  have  their  own  city  im- 
provement societies,  whose  business  it  is  to  make  the  city 


32  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

and  its  environs  attractive  to  visitors.  Among  minor  cities 
in  Germany  which  have  been  made  highly  attractive  in  this 
way  are  Essen,  Duisburg,  Dortmund  and  Barmen,  all  of 
which  lie  in  the  industrial  district  Rhineland-Westphalia, 
where  city  improvement  would  be  the  least  expected. 

Many  of  the  famous  European  cities  have  some  dominant 
feature  which  is  recalled  when  their  name  is  mentioned,  such 
as  the  canals  of  Venice,  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  the  Kremlin  at 
Moscow  and  Unter  den  Linden  and  the  Brandenburgertor  at 
Berlin,  the  Ring  and  the  Prater  at  Vienna,  the  Louvre  and 
Notre  Dame  at  Paris,  the  Jungfernstieg  at  Hamburg,  the 
Zeile  at  Frankfort,  and  Westminster  Abbey  and  Hyde  Park 
at  London,  which  are  notable  examples,  crystallizing,  so  to 
speak,  the  fame  of  the  city. 

As  in  a  civic  center  some  one  structure  should  be  domi- 
nant, it  is  similarly  desirable  in  a  city  to  have  some  feature 
dominant  and  to  devote  the  best  energies  of  the  city  to  its 
perfection.  The  city  may  thus  gain  distinction  and  fame 
more  readily  than  by  diffusing  its  energies. 

The  civic  center  need  not  necessarily  be  the  most  noted 
feature  of  a  city,  as  such  centers  will  be  more  or  less  similar 
in  all  cities,  though  some  may  make  the  civic  center  the 
leading  feature.  Among  other  single  features  which  may  be 
made  distinctive  are  bridges,  water  and  land  approaches, 
embankments,  drives,  great  avenues,  promenades,  monu- 
ments, squares,  residential  streets,  parks,  parkways,  gardens, 
special  styles  of  architecture  followed  throughout  a  district, 
museums,  street  outlays,  theatres,  churches,  memorials,  uni- 
versities and  the  like. 

Many  European  cities  of  small  size  have  some  features 
which  are  in  some  cases  of  natural  origin,  and  in  others  of 
historical  interest.  For  example,  a  "dying  lion"  carved  in 
the  natural  stone  of  the  mountain  side  draws  many  to 
Lucerne,  while  the  towns  near  which  battles  have  been 
fought,  or  where  noted  men  were  born  or  are  buried,  are  also 
points  of  great  interest. 

Foreign  cities  are  noted  for  special  pursuits  of  their  in- 
habitants in  many  cases,  or  of  their  products.    The  artists 


THE  CIVIC  CENTER 


33 


Figs.  3  and  4.   civic  center 
Proposed  Plan  for  Hirschberg,  Silesia 


34  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

of  Paris  and  Munich  and  in  times  past  of  Diisseldorf;  the 
musicians  of  Vienna  and  Milano,  the  porcelains  of  Dresden, 
the  vioUn  makers  of  Mittelwalde,  the  toymakers  of  Nurem- 
burg,  the  cuckoo  clocks  of  Freiburg,  the  passion  play  of 
Oberammergau  and  similar  features  have  made  those  places 
famous.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  example  of  the  advertise- 
ment of  a  city  by  such  a  special  feature  is  the  last  mentioned, 
the  passion  play  at  Oberammergau,  which  though  it  takes 
place  but  one  in  ten  years,  has  made  the  village  famous,  and 
travellers  from  all  over  the  world  visit  it  to  the  great  enrich- 
ment of  its  inhabitants.  Bayreuth,  similarly,  has  been  made 
famous  by  Wagner,  while  Mecca  has  not  only  become  famous 
in  itself  from  sheltering  the  remains  of  a  religious  fanatic, 
but  has  made  its  name  a  synonym  for  such  travels. 

The  features  of  American  cities  which  might  be  made 
objects  of  interest  to  travellers  receive  little  or  no  attention. 
There  are,  for  example,  many  tombs  of  former  presidents 
which  are  utterly  neglected.  Various  other  features  have 
been  allowed  to  fall  into  obscurity  which  might  be  made  of 
interest  to  visitors. 

It  should  be  the  object  of  the  city  improvement  society 
to  advance  the  interests  of  the  city  in  every  possible  way 
and  to  utilize  such  special  features  for  the  purpose  of  ad- 
vertising the  city,  and  when  visitors  arrive,  to  see  that  they 
meet  with  no  obstacles  in  gratifying  their  desire  to  see  the 
city. 

A  number  of  American  cities  of  lesser  size  have  first-class 
attractions,  such  as  the  steel  works  at  Bethlehem,  and  the 
furniture  factories  of  Grand  Rapids,  which  would  be  of  in- 
terest to  many  foreign  travellers  just  as  the  cuckoo  clocks  of 
Freiburg  draw  American  visitors;  while  localities  have  been 
made  famous  by  men,  such  as  Menlo  Park  by  Edison,  East 
Aurora  by  Elbert  Hubbard,  who  tried  to  steal  some  Ober- 
ammergau thunder  by  advertising  the  presentation  of  its 
passion  play  in  that  town;  while  monuments  such  as  those 
of  Henry  Clay  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  Washington's  Monument 
at  Washington,  Grant's  Tomb  in  New  York  and  Bunker 
Hill  at  Boston  are  already  famous.    The  city  of  Albany  has 


THE     ZWINGER,     DRESDEN 


OUTER     BURGPLATZ     WITH     THE     NEW     HOFBURG,     VIENNA 
Striking  examples  of  enclosed  squares 


CITY    HALL,    MUNICH 
The  focal  point  of  several  converging  slreels 


THE  CIVIC  CENTER  35 

recently  scored  strongly  in  respect  of  attracting  visitors, 
through  the  erection  of  a  building  housing  the  Educational 
Administration  of  the  state,  which  is  claimed  to  be  one  of 
the  ten  most  beautiful  buildings  in  the  world. 

American  cities  are,  however,  waking  up,  and  in  the 
next  few  decades,  should  make  great  progress.  America's 
wealth  is  drawing  great  art  treasures  from  Europe  and  in 
civic  improvement  her  cities  will  in  time  outstrip  the  cities 
of  Europe.  The  Pennsylvania  Terminal  and  the  New  Public 
Library  in  New  York,  for  example,  are  structures  which  no 
European  city  is  likely  to  surpass,  and  the  movement  for 
civic  improvement,  which  is  now  beginning  in  many  of  the 
greatest  cities  throughout  the  country,  cannot  fail  to  have 
the  most  profound  and  inspiring  results. 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE  GREAT  GROUND  PLAN 

Zone   or   District    Systems;    Classification    and    Gradation    of 
Districts;   Individuality  of  Cities;   Building  Regulation 

The  great  ground  plan  of  a  city  includes  the  whole  lay- 
out of  the  streets,  avenues,  civic  centers,  parks,  boulevards, 
piers,  bridges,  esplanades  and  grounds.  In  the  planning  of 
such  a  lay-out,  the  fundamental  principle  is  that  of  the 
classification  of  districts  according  to  their  uses.  The 
district  units  are  to  the  whole  city  what  the  separate  build- 
ings are  to  the  civic  center,  and  the  principal  problem  of 
the  planning  of  a  city  is  to  get  suitable  arrangements  of 
districts. 

The  whole  purpose  of  city  planning  is  to  increase  the 
health,  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  public,  and  in  order 
to  accomplish  this,  it  is  absolutely  essential  to  have  the 
districts  properly  arranged.  In  their  planning  the  object  is 
to  give  each  man  for  his  dollar  the  greatest  value  possible 
in  housing  and  business  convenience,  proportionate  to  his 
income;  that  is  to  say,  the  man  of  small  income  must  be 
given  the  same  quantity  of  accommodations  for  the  proportion 
of  his  income  that  he  can  devote  to  such  purpose,  as  the 
man  of  large  income;  the  only  difference  being  in  quality. 
Thus  a  mechanic,  in  renting  a  six-room  house  for  his  family, 
should  not  have  to  pay  for  it  a  greater  proportion  of  his 
income  than  the  higher  salaried  manager  pays  of  his  income 
in  renting  a  six-room  apartment  for  his  family,  the  differ- 
ence in  actual  amount  being  represented  by  quality. 

The  more  numerous  classes  should  always  be  able  to  ob- 
tain adequate  quantities  of  whatever  may  be  requisite  to 
satisfy  their  needs,  with  only  the  expenditure  of  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  their  income. 


THE   GROUND   PLAN 


37 


Its  classification  must 


This  can  only  be  accomplished  by  the  establishment  of 
classified  districts  and  a  rigid  enforcement  of  proper  regula- 
tions. This  is  the  real  kernel  of  city  planning,  compared 
with  which  its  architectural  embeUishment  is  merely  a  polish- 
ing of  the  shell. 

Each  city  has  its  own  problem, 
proceed  in  accordance  with  the 
results  to  be  achieved  and  with 
the  nature  of  its  activities  and 
business.  For  example,  New 
York,  with  its  varied  industries 
and  activities,  needs  a  greater 
number  of  classifications  and  a 
greater  flexibility  in  their  appli- 
cation than  Washington,  which 
is  more  devoted  to  administra- 
tive and  social  purposes. 

Suitable  laws  must  be  enacted 
under  which  the  necessary  regu- 
lations can  be  carried  out,  and   F'^.  5.  ground  plan  of  roman 

BUILT   COLOGNE   ON   THE   RHINE 


The  Site  of  which  is  to-day  occupied 
by  the  central  portion  of  modern  Cologne 
in  which  the  same  Street  Scheme  is  pre- 
served and  amplified,  as  is  the  case  with 
many  sites  originally  built  on  by  the 
Romans  in  what  is  now  Germany. 


through  which  citizens  will  be 
protected  in  their  rights  and 
prevented  from  interfering  with 
the  rights  of  others. 

Objectors  to  such  regulations 
will  be  numerous,  but  it  is  only 
necessary  to  recall  that  in  sporadic  cases,  such  systems 
of  regulation  exist  and  are  carried  out  with  even  greater 
severity  than  may  often  be  necessary.  On  certain  streets, 
for  example,  no  commercial  traffic  is  allowed,  while  on  others 
no  peddlers  can  sell  goods.  On  the  other  hand,  a  millinery 
or  similar  establishment  is  at  liberty  at  any  time  to  move  in 
and  spoil  a  whole  residential  block,  to  be  followed  shortly 
by  laundries  and  bootmakers. 

In  the  laying  out  of  districts,  the  objects  to  be  accom- 
plished are  the  providing  of  healthful  living  and  working 
conditions,  prevention  of  congestion,  convenience  of  distribu- 
tion, suitable  relation  of  the  homes  of  the  workers  to  their 


38 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


places  of  employment,  and  the  grouping  together  of  those 
whose  incomes  and  tastes  are  generally  similar. 

In  European  districts,  the  classes  of  districts  are  often  a 
dozen  or  more  in  number.  The  city  of  Karlsruhe,  with  a 
population  of  135,000,  has  as  many  as  sixteen  classifications, 
ranging  from  high-class  residential  to  detached  suburban 
houses,  and  civic  center  to  factory  districts. 

Owing  to  the  hitherto  unregulated  conditions,  it  would 
not  now  be  practicable  in  most  American  cities  to  establish 
as  many  districts,  or  as  close  a  classification. 

A  workable  classification  for  the  average  American  city 
might  be  as  follows: 


Residential  District, 

Business  District, 

Industrial  District, 

Tenement  District 
Warehousing  District 


No.  1       Light  Traffic,  no  stores 
No.  2       Medium  Traffic,  stores 

No.  1       Medium  Traffic 
No.  2       Heavy  Traffic 

No.  1       25  to  100  employees  per  establishment 
No.  2       Over  100  employees  per  establishment 

Stores  and  heavy  traffic 
Heavy  traffic 


In  making  such  classifications,  however,  the  city  should 
not  be  divided  in  such  a  manner  as  to  confine  the  poorer 
classes  in  the  parts  of  the  city  remote  from  those  in  which 
the  better  classes  are  housed,  as  such  residential  restrictions 
would  prove  unpopular. 

The  better  plan  is  to  have  a  gradual  improvement  of  the 
residential  sections  from  the  extremity  of  tenements  or  low- 
priced  cottages  on  one  side  to  private  residences  with  exten- 
sive grounds  on  the  other;  the  poorer  citizens  thus  not  being 
compelled  to  live  in  a  section  of  the  city  of  a  fixed  character, 
but  being  able  to  move  into  better  quarters  from  time  to 
time  as  their  means  improved,  forming  new  acquaintance- 
ships and  gradually  getting  out  of  the  reach  of  others,  as  by 
successive  moves  they  come  to  occupy  better  quarters. 

In  such  an  arrangement  of  the  sections  of  a  city  into 
graded  zones,  the  differences  between  one  zone  and  the  next 


THE   GROUND   PLAN  39 

would  not  be  great  in  degree.  They  should,  nevertheless, 
be  strictly  adhered  to,  in  order  to  preserve  the  character  of 
the  different  portions  of  the  city,  and  prevent  undesirable 
changes,  mostly  due  to  the  efforts  of  real  estate  speculators. 
In  Germany,  where  city  planning  has  developed  into  a 
science  of  the  first  importance,  such  regulations  provide  that 


Fig.  6.   great  ground  plan  of  mannheim 

A  plan  which  with  its  horseshoe  has  proven  highly  satisfactory.  It  offers  a  solution 
of  street  replanning  for  American  cities  with  their  gridirons,  and  has  been  followed  in  the 
proposed  plans  of  Chicago  and  other  cities. 

in  certain  zones,  only  buildings  conforming  to  certain  stand- 
ards shall  be  erected. 

Such  regulations  apply  not  only  to  residences  but  also  to 
business  buildings,  and  the  business  streets  conform  to  their 
standards  just  as  do  the  residential  streets. 

In  the  laying  out  of  German  cities  a  spirit  of  adaptability 
prevails,  which  gives  the  cities  variety,  and  at  the  same  time 
effects  the  necessary  regulation. 

Thus,  for  example,  if  there  are  a  dozen  kinds  of  classifica- 
tions prescribed,  the  city  is  not  laid  out  rigidly  into  twelve 
parts  and  each  part  given  a  certain  character,  but  each  group 
of  blocks  of  the  city  is  considered  and  its  future  character 


40  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

determined,  it  being  set  apart  in  accordance  with  the  charac- 
teristics of  one  of  the  twelve  kinds  of  classification,  which 
may  cause  it  to  differ  to  a  considerable  extent  from  the  ad- 
joining group  of  blocks.  The  dividing  lines,  however,  be- 
tween classifications  may  occur  even  in  a  block,  one  side 
or  end  being  developed  in  one  way  and  the  other  in  another 
way.  Thus  though  there  may  be  but  twelve  kinds  of  classi- 
fications, there  will  be  many  hundreds  of  small  zones,  ar- 
ranged to  the  best  possible  advantage  but  in  all  of  only 
twelve  kinds.  The  gradation  of  zones  is  consequently  such 
that  sharp  lines  of  demarkation  do  not  occur. 

In  its  general  outlines,  the  planning  of  a  city  must  follow 
certain  artistic  and  engineering  principles,  but  in  addition, 
as  has  been  noted,  each  city  offers  its  own  problems,  which 
must  be  considered  with  the  utmost  care  and  solved  with 
the  aid  of  expert  advice  and  experience. 

So  many  considerations  of  importance  enter  into  the 
question  of  the  laying  out  of  a  city,  and  in  its  reconstruc- 
tion, that  it  should  not  be  undertaken  without  the  assistance 
of  the  most  competent  civic  engineers  and  architects. 

The  principal  units  which  must  be  considered  in  laying 
out  the  city's  great  ground  plan,  are  the  civic  center  section, 
the  banking  and  office  building  section,  the  wholesale  dis- 
trict, the  manufacturing  district,  the  warehouse  district, 
retail  stores,  amusements,  social  centers,  food  products  dis- 
tricts, terminals,  miscellaneous  industries,  light  and  heavy, 
parks  and  recreation  grounds  and  special  school  and  college 
grounds,  and  in  the  remodelling  of  cities  and  the  laying  out 
of  city  blocks,  these  various  constituents  must  be  considered 
in  their  relations  to  each  other.  This  involves  various  forms 
of  communication,  such  as  streams  of  traffic,  land  and  water 
transportation,  both  of  passengers  and  products,  and  a  con- 
sideration of  the  sources  of  the  city's  raw  materials  and  the 
methods  whereby  they  are  transported  to  and  from  the  city. 
A  seaport  city  or  one  on  a  river  offers  an  entirely  different 
problem  from  the  inland  city,  drawing  all  its  supplies  by 
rail. 

The  future  expansion  of  a  city  is  also  one  of  the  most 


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THE   GROUND   PLAN 


41 


important  problems  of  the  civic  engineer,  and  the  most 
careful  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  probable  direction 
of  its  growth,  the  presence  of  natural  obstacles  and  of  na- 
tural incentives  to  growth. 

The  problem  of  the  civic  engineer  will  be  greatly  sim- 
plified in  this  respect,  if  proper  regulations  are  enforced, 
as  growth  along  the  most  desirable  avenues  can  then  be 
stimulated,  and  the  deflections  incident  to  real  estate 
speculation  and  other  causes  avoided. 

Presuming  that  the  civic  engineer  is  in  position  to  plan 
the  city  with  the  assurance  that  regulations  will  be  such 


Fig.  7.   great  ground  plan,  karlsruhe 

An  exceptionally  well-planned  city,  full  of  individuality  and  variety.  The  portion 
above  the  median  line  of  the  great  circle  is  a  forest  park.  The  building  regulations  provide 
for  sixteen  zones. 

that  the  plan  will  be  carried  out;  perhaps  the  most  nearly 
ideal  ground  plan,  from  a  theoretical  point  of  view,  is  that 
in  which  the  main  civic  center  is  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  city,  with  concentric  circumferential  streets  at  intervals 
surrounding  it,  interconnected  with  radial,  diagonal  and 
transverse  streets. 

Such  a  plan,  which  may  be  termed  the  circular  plan, 
while  showing  up  well  on  paper,  is  not  without  its  serious 
disadvantages,  and  it  does  not  work  out  in  practice  as  satis- 
factorily as  might  be  supposed.  Circumferential  streets 
become    just    as    monotonous    as    straight    streets,    and    to 


42  CITY   PLANNING   AND   MAINTENANCE 

relieve  this  effect,  diagonal  and  transverse  streets  must  be 
cut  through,  producing  the  necessary  focal  points,  but  at 
considerable  waste  of  small  irregular  shaped  spaces.  The 
effect  produced  is  of  a  city  with  little  or  no  individuality. 
The  circular  plan  is,  so  to  speak,  a  machine-made  plan,  and 
its  adoption  would  result  in  a  sort  of  standardized  city,  all 
monotonously  similar  to  each  other. 

In  order  to  have  individuality  of  its  own,  a  city  must  be 
composed  of  portions  each  of  which  has  its  own  individual- 
ity. This  individuality  is  dependent  upon  its  street  plan, 
its  buildings,  and  the  way  in  which  they  are  arranged  to 
strike  the  eye.  In  order  that  a  portion  of  a  city  may  have 
its  own  individuality,  it  must  in  some  way  be  demarked  from 
the  remainder.  Such  demarkation  cannot  be  accomplished 
when  all  the  streets  run  to  great  lengths,  as  mere  extent 
defeats  the  sense  of  unity,  presenting  so  much  for  the  eye 
to  see  and  the  mind  to  grasp  that  any  feeling  of  individual- 
ity is  lost. 

Streets  should  not,  therefore,  be  of  great  and  indefinite 
length.  Even  the  most  important  avenues  should  run  from 
one  point  to  another,  and  not  be  extended  out  into  the  rural 
districts. 

Similarly,  local  streets  should  have  definite  limits,  and 
their  length  should  be  less  if  they  are  narrow  than  if  they 
are  wide.  They  may  often,  with  advantage,  terminate 
against  other  streets  in  T  or  L  plan,  or  they  may  be  placed 
out  of  parallel  and  at  varying  distances,  since  uniformity 
in  the  length  of  blocks  defeats  the  sense  of  individuality 
also.  In  local  parts  of  the  city,  the  eye  should  always  find 
an  object  on  which  to  fall,  either  of  buildings  at  the  ends  of 
streets,  monuments  at  intersections  or  other  streets  diver- 
ging. Only  on  getting  out  into  the  main  avenues  should 
comparatively  long  vistas  be  found. 

The  principles  outlined  are  the  fruit  of  the  experience  of 
city  builders  of  the  past,  applied  to  modern  conditions,  and 
the  past  has  been  full  of  mistakes.  Many  cities  have  been 
built  on  more  or  less  idealized  plans,  and  while  in  some  such 
cases,  the  result  has  been   pleasing  from  an  aesthetic  point 


THE   GROUND    PLAN 


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44  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE  - 

of  view,  the  tendency  has  been  to  pay  too  Uttle  considera- 
tion to  individuahty,  and  Uttle  if  any  to  practical  considera- 
tions and  industrial  developments. 

The  utility  of  the  city,  as  distinguished  from  its  beautifi- 
cation,  demands  a  greater  degree  of  attention  than  has  been 
accorded  it,  and  the  response  to  this  demand  by  German 
cities  has  been  largely  responsible  for  their  progress. 

The  German  city  building  movement  produced  great, 
practical  city  builders,  and  as  a  result  of  their  labors,  the 
United  Society  of  German  Architects  and  Engineers,  in  1874, 
laid  down  the  fundamental  principles  of  city  planning  as 
follows : 

"The  basic  principles  of  enlarging  a  city,  considered  from 
the  technical,  the  economical  and  the  administrative  points 
of  view  are: 

"(1)  The  scope  of  city  planning  consists  principally  in 
fixing  the  base  lines  of  all  trafTic  movements  and  transit 
facilities,  viz.:  streets,  street  cars,  railroads  and  canals, 
which  must  be  treated  liberally  and  systematically. 

"(2)  The  street  net  should  contain  the  main  streets, 
with  the  existing  streets  taken  duly  into  consideration;  the 
auxiliary  streets  which  are  fixed  by  local  conditions,  and  in 
addition,  other  subordinate  streets,  treated  in  accordance 
with  the  necessities  of  the  immediate  future,  or  having  their 
development  placed  in  the  hands  of  interested  property 
owners. 

"  (3)  The  grouping  of  the  parts  of  the  city  should  be 
effected  in  accordance  with  their  location  and  individual 
characteristics,  subject  to  such  modifications  as  may  be 
demanded  by  sanitary  considerations  and  the  exigencies  of 
commerce  and  industry. 

"(4)  The  duty  of  the  building  department  is  to  deter- 
mine the  rights  and  privileges  of  tenant  and  neighbor  and 
house  owner.  Such  rights  and  privileges  are  related  to  fire 
protection,  freedom  from  interference,  health,  and  safety 
of  buildings,  and  all  aesthetic  considerations  must  be  second- 
ary thereto. 


THE  GROUND   PLAN  45 

"  (5)  It  is  desirable  that  expropriation  and  impropriation 
be  facilitated  by  legal  measures,  and  of  still  more  impor- 
tance is  the  creation  of  a  law  providing  for  the  regulation  of 
the  contour  of  new  or  reconstructed  blocks  to  be  built  upon. 

"(6)  The  city  should  be  reimbursed  by  property  holders 
directly  benefited  by  improvements  for  funds  advanced  by 
the  city  for  such  purposes,  and  it  is  advisable  to  have  the 
amount  stipulated  before  the  work  is  begun  and  a  normal 
cost  per  front  foot  fixed. 

"(7)  The  activities  of  interested  property  owners'  asso- 
ciations, in  regard  to  the  improvement  of  certain  sections, 
should  be  subject  to  municipal  supervision. 

"  (8)  Land  upon  which  it  is  imperative  to  make  improve- 
ments should  only  be  built  upon  under  reservations  for  its 
subsequent  use  by  the  city. 

"The  property  owner  whose  land  has  been  marked  out 
for  street  improvements  should  be  entitled  to  demand 
expropriation  with  compensation,  in  the  event  of  delay  in 
making  the  improvements. 

"The  installation  of  sewer  connections  to  new  buildings 
must  be  at  the  expense  of  the  property  holder,  but  the  city 
should  be  obligated  to  install  a  complete  system  upon  the 
guarantees  of  a  sufficient  number  of  property  owners  of 
abutting   property." 

As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  work  of  Baumeister  is  pre- 
eminent among  the  great  practical  city  builders,  and  ex- 
cerpts from  his  book,  "  Stadterweiterungen  in  technischer, 
baupolizeilicher  und  wirtschaftlicher  Beziehung"  (1876),  are 
of  the  greatest  interest. 

"In  the  city  of  the  future,  there  will  be  three  principal 
divisions;  a  business  section  as  a  core,  an  industrial  dis- 
trict, including  possibly  wholesaling,  and  a  residential  dis- 
trict. It  is  therefore  important  that  all  large  cities  of  the 
future,  from  the  outset,  should  keep  these  principles  in  view. 
It  must  be  recognized  that  the  development  of  a  city;.;is 
confined  to  these  three  divisions  and  that  they  are  inter- 
dependent in  their  development,  though  for  the  necessities 


46  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

of  an  immediate  future,  piecemeal  progress  may  be  made 
with  subordinate  projects. 

"To  each  basic  division  belongs  main  streets,  railroads 
and  drainage  canals,  together  with  the  grouping  of  industrial 
districts  and  the  selection  of  places  for  public  buildings  and 
promenades.  The  immediate  object  is  not  to  complete  the 
planning  at  once,  but  to  gain  control  of  the  ground  which 
will  be  needed. 

"In  a  good  street  net,  distinction  must  be  made  between 
the  main  streets  and  the  auxiliary  streets.  There  must  not 
only  be  variety  in  the  city  as  a  whole,  but  also  in  its  various 
districts. 

"Symmetry  in  grouping  of  buildings,  picturesque  per- 
spective of  streets  and  places  and  well-chosen  points  of 
observation,  and  attractive  successions  of  buildings  con- 
stitute the  individual  elements  of  a  satisfactory  architectural 
impression. 

"The  straight  stretches  of  the  arterial  highways  of  the 
city  should  gradually  be  transformed  as  the  suburbs  are 
reached,  into  forms  more  characteristic  of  rural  life,  with 
curves  and  deflections.  While  additional  time  will  be  con- 
sumed in  traversing  such  streets,  the  life  of  the  city  has 
been  left  behind  and  the  enjoyments  of  the  country  reached. 
The  further  such  avenues  proceed,  the  more  rural  in  char- 
acter should  they  become. 

"The  historically  trained  artist  turns  naturally  in  con- 
templation to  the  past.  He  reconstructs  in  his  imagination 
the  admirable  structures  of  antiquity,  and  delights  in  present 
picturesque  examples  of  the  middle  ages,  such  as  seen  at 
Danzig,  Liibeck  and  Niirnberg.  When  in  a  group  of  build- 
ings, the  lining  private  buildings  are  supported  by  a  suit- 
able structure  of  prominence  as  a  focal  objective,  a  pleasing 
street  picture  results.  But,  can  the  charm  of  these  old 
street  pictures  be  completely  reproduced?  By  no  means, 
as  the  mellowing  effects  of  generations  of  time  are  altogether 
missing. 

"When,  however,  the  monotony  of  the  enormously  long 
straight  streets  of  modern  cities  has  to  be  endured,  with 


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THE  GROUND  PLAN  47 

their  interminable  lines  of  similar  structures,  the  artistic 
principles  upon  which  the  old  cities  were  founded  should  be 
remembered. 

"Much  more  important  is  the  difference  in  the  direction 
and  width  of  the  streets,  which  existed  at  that  time  and 
those  of  to-day.  There  were  then  many  narrow  streets, 
with  numerous  turns  and  deflections,  and  seldom  any 
straight  building  line  of  any  considerable  length,  the  houses 
or  groups  of  houses  often  projecting  beyond  or  standing  back 
from  the  building  line,  while  the  width  of  the  streets  was 
constantly  changing  and  their  axes  interrupted  by  monu- 
ments and  fountains.  To-day  the  width  is  unchanging,  and 
there  are  straight  building  lines,  hours  long.  In  those  days 
the  principles  of  variety  and  unsymmetry  produced  pleasing 
artistic  effects,  but  to-day  the  best  that  can  be  done  is  to 
produce  bald  effects  of  massive  proportions. 

"Nevertheless,  the  straight  street  is  unsuited  to  a  rolling 
or  hilly  configuration  of  the  land,  and  although  a  city  street 
may  be  built  in  a  more  direct  fashion  than  may  a  country 
road,  it  is  nevertheless  the  part  of  wisdom  not  to  attempt 
to  overcome  the  too  reckless  works  of  nature. 

"While  it  can  by  no  means  be  recommended  that  the 
Building  departments  should  be  so  careless  as  to  permit 
buildings  to  disregard  the  building  line,  or  to  adopt  the 
principle  of  the  bent  streets  in  defiance  of  the  necessities  of 
traffic,  there  are  still,  however,  many  principles  then  fol- 
lowed which,  in  the  new  city  planning,  could  be  employed 
with  great  advantage  in  producing  architectural  effects. 

"Thus  in  cities  in  which  there  is  already  a  core,  as  was 
the  case  in  most  of  the  old  cities,  the  radial  system  of  streets 
is  to-day,  as  it  was  then,  one  which  with  advantage  may  be 
adopted.  From  a  city,  when  neither  natural  or  artificial 
obstacles  prevent,  in  order  to  reach  and  develop  industrial 
and  commercial  enterprises  and  to  communicate  with  other 
places,  streets  and  roads  will  of  their  own  accord  take 
radial  form,  reaching  in  every  direction.  Such  radial  ten- 
dencies show  the  natural  direction  of  traffic  between  city 
and  country  and  for  that  reason,  even  to  the  smallest  foot- 


48 


CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


way  over  the  fields,  they  must  be  attended,  as  often  the 
by-path  of  to-day  becomes  the  road  of  the  future. 

"When  a  city  has,  through  the  provision  of  open  spaces, 
performed  that  part  of  its  duty  in  promoting  the  health  of 
its  public,  it  should  still  further  see  that  such  spaces  are 
suitably  provided  with  trees  and  vegetation,  for  the  good 
influence    thereby    exerted    has    long    been    physiologically 


Fig.  9.  plan  of  a  city  with  radical  and  circumferential  avenues 

A-A,  Existing  City;  B-B,  Railroad  Stations;  H-H,  Canal  Harbors;  S-S-S-S,  Belt 
Railway  Stations. 

recognized.  But  of  greater  importance  is  the  spiritual  stir- 
ring produced,  especially  in  the  German  peoples,  the  result 
of  the  communion  of  humanity  with  nature.  The  poetry  of 
the  forest,  the  enjoyment  of  walking  and  the  observation 
of  nature  and  the  innocent  play  of  children  with  animals 
are  all  evidences  of  this  feeling. 

"In  our  modern  cities,  with  their  unbounded  expansion 
and  with  the  plants  of  industry  and  traffic  located  over  a 
wide  radius,  there  is  a  tendency  for  business  life  to  con- 
centrate in  the  heart  of  the  city,  and  at  the  same  time  for 


THE  GROUND  PLAN  49 

homes  to  locate  in  the  quietness  of  the  country.  It  is 
important,  therefore,  in  the  estabhshment  of  such  pleasur- 
able places  of  residence,  in  the  course  of  city  improvement, 
in  order  that  the  needs  of  the  body  and  the  soul  be  met, 
that  the  housing  question  be  carefully  considered.  The 
provision  of  facilities  of  such  a  character  is  a  duty  that  the 
city  owes  to  its  public,  especially  the  middle  and  poorer 
classes,  but  of  importance  to  all. 

"In  the  city  itself,  and  especially  in  the  city  of  the  future, 
vegetation  is  particularly  desirable  to  quiet  the  nerves  in 
the  disturbing  influence  of  noise  and  bustle,  to  revive  the 
spirits  after  exhausting  labor  and  to  restore  the  temper. 

"Closely  connected  therewith,  the  aesthetic  relation  of 
architecture  and  vegetation  must  not  be  forgotten.  In  a 
great  city,  the  surface  of  the  earth  should  nowhere  be  left 
bare,  but  should  always  be  treated  in  a  naturalistic  spirit. 
By  means  of  trees,  decorative  gardens  and  grass  plots,  the 
effect  of  buildings  can  be  greatly  improved  and  embel- 
lished. Such  elements  may  be  employed  most  effectively 
when  used  to  surround  architectural  groups  with  borders, 
backgrounds  and  in  the  spaces  of  vistas. 

"In  addition  to  the  public  parks,  cemeteries  and  wood- 
lands requisite,  are  the  numerous  decorative  parks,  for 
which  the  public  is  largely  indebted  to  the  enterprise  of 
earlier  and  ruling  princes,  but  which,  nevertheless,  seem  in 
no  city  to  be  sufficiently  numerous,  and  it  is  to  be  urgently 
recommended  that  more  should  be  provided,  or  at  least  the 
land  therefor  acquired  before  the  opportunity  is  lost  through 
the  progress  of  building  operations." 

The  principles  upon  which  Baumeister  based  his  work 
have  proven  to  be  sound  and  of  great  practical  value,  not 
only  in  the  beautification  of  cities,  but  in  the  solution  of 
the  interlocking  social,  industrial  and  commercial  problems. 

Some  of  the  accompanying  illustrations  are  of  the  ground 
plans  of  cities  which  have  been  planned  to  include  the  highly 
important  elements  pointed  out,  those  of  variety  and 
individuality. 


50 


CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


Very  excellent  examples  are  seen  in  the  cities  of  Moscow 
and  Karlsruhe.  The  street  plan  of  Constantinople  is  peculiar 
in  that  there  are  a  great  number  of  curved  streets.     The  city 

of  Nancy  is  known 
as  a  city  of  great 
individuality,  as  will 
be  evidenced  by  the 
plan.  The  city  of 
Mannheim  is  pecul- 
iar in  that  though 
the  principal  portion 
of  the  city  is  of  the 
gridiron  plan,  it  is 
relieved  by  a  large 
horseshoe.  Many 
American  cities  may 
find  in  this  treat- 
ment, the  cue  for  a 
proper  remodelling 
of  their  interminable 
gridirons. 

It  is  the  general 
impression  that 
Washington    is    one 


Fig.    10.     GREAT    GROUND    PLAN    OF    THE    NEW    Qf    1\^q    {3^5^    \^[^    q^^ 
DELHI,    THE    CAPITAL    CITY  OF  INDIA  ^-^-^^     -^^    ^^^    ^nitcd 

The  construction  was  begun  at  the  Durbar.  o  .     ,  i     ,  i 

States,  and  the  ac- 
companying illustration  shows  its  great  ground  plan.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  plan  consists  of  a  gridiron,  through  which 
are  run  a  system  of  diagonal  avenues.  While  Washington 
is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  best  planned  cities  in  America, 
it  only  partially  exemplifies  what  are  to-day  recognized  as 
the  best  principles  of  city  planning.  The  plan  of  Washing- 
ton is  such  that  it  shows  its  great  monumental  structures 
to  good  advantage,  but  otherwise,  with  the  exception  of  the 
squares  produced  by  the  intersections  of  the  straight  diag- 
onals with  the  gridiron  streets,  it  is  lacking  in  variety  and 
interest,  and  has  all  the  monotony  of  long  streets. 


THE  GROUND  PLAN  51 

Much  the  same  objection  may  be  made  to  some  of  the 
principal  streets  of  Paris,  which  are  not  sufficiently  demarked 
to  produce  a  proper  degree  of  individuality. 

In  1902  a  Committee  of  the  Senate  made  an  elaborate 
report  on  the  improvement  of  Washington,  which  indicates, 
at  least,  that  such  an  improvement  is  considered  desirable. 

The  great  ground  plan  of  Buffalo  excels  that  of  Wash- 
ington, and  is  notable  among  the  city  plans  of  the  cities  of 
the  United  States.  It  was  early  realized  that  a  great  city 
would  develop  in  the  vicinity  of  Niagara,  and  proceeding 
on  this  conviction,  the  site  of  Buffalo  was  the  result  of  a 
sagaciously  made  selection.  It  is  located  where  it  is,  not 
as  an  accident  of  growth,  but  in  pursuance  of  a  carefully 
considered  plan.  Joseph  Ellicott,  an  agent  of  the  Holland 
Land  Company,  laid  out  the  city  in  1801-02,  calling  it  New 
Amsterdam.  Ellicott  is  known  as  the  "Father  of  Buffalo" 
and  the  city  owes  him  a  debt  of  gratitude  of  far  greater 
proportions  than  is  generally  realized,  for  while  other  cities 
are  spending  great  sums  in  reconstructing  their  street  plans, 
Buffalo  enjoys  the  great  heritage  of  a  well-conceived  and 
well-executed  plan,  the  fruit  of  his  genius  and  foresight. 

Joseph  Ellicott  was  a  younger  brother  of  Andrew  Elli- 
cott, the  first  surveyor-general  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  man  who  completed  the  city  of  Washington  on  the 
designs  of  the  great  French  city  planner,  L'Enfant.  The 
younger  brother,  himself,  did  considerable  work  on  Wash- 
ington, and  when  he  came  to  plan  Buffalo,  he  knew  the  true 
theories  and  laid  out  the  city  accordingly. 

After  him  the  art  of  city  planning  in  America  seems  to 
have  died,  for  with  the  exception  of  Washington  and  Buffalo, 
American  cities  are  almost  wholly  built  at  haphazard.  As 
the  result,  however,  of  a  recently  awakened  interest,  millions 
in  money  are  being  spent  by  cities  throughout  the  country 
in  remodelling  their  streets.  Buffalo,  with  her  plan,  is 
saved  such  necessity  and  may  thus  devote  to  other  purposes 
sums  which  would  have  had  to  be  spent  in  reconstruction 
but  for  the  work  of  Ellicott. 

As  has  been  indicated,  in  order  to  hold  the  development 


52 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


of  a  city  to  its  plan,  stringent  regulations  must  be  put  in 
force.     Washington,  for  example,  has  not  developed  as  was 


~i ^^SnfTir™- 


Fig.    11.     GREAT  GROUND   PLAN  OF  CARBERRA,  THE  PROPOSED  NEW 
CAPITAL  CITY  OF  AUSTRALIA 

the  intention  of  its  planners,  and  no  city  will,  unless  prop- 
erly  compelled   to.     While   numerous   objections   are    likely 


PROPOSED    CITY    HALL    PLAZA,    PHILADELPHIA 
Palace  of  Justice  in  center.  City  Hall  at  the  right 


PROPOSED    REARRANGEMENT    OF    W  A  I  I  HWAVS,    CHICAGO 
Handling  freight  and  tragic  on  different  levels  as  in  Di'isseldorf,  Algiers,  Biida-Pest, 

Geneva  and  Paris 


THE  GROUND  PLAN  53 

to  be  raised  to  the  enforcement  of  such  regulations,  they 
will  be  trivial  beside  the  benefits  to  be  gained.  Such  objec- 
tions prove  of  little  weight  when  regulations  are  put  in 
practice,  for  far  more  drastic  ones  are  constantly  being 
carried  out. 

For  example,  in  New  York,  in  the  case  of  Fifth  Avenue 
and  Riverside  Drive,  and  in  similar  streets  in  other  cities, 
heavy  traffic  and  push-cart  peddling  is  prohibited.  On 
West  End  Avenue,  business  and  traffic  are  halted  at  70th 
Street,  and  above  that  point  a  most  remarkable  transforma- 
tion occurs.  It  is  as  though  a  Chinese  wall  had  been  erected, 
for  to  the  southward,  where  the  thoroughfare  is  called 
Eleventh  Avenue,  are  tenements  and  factories,  railroad 
yards,  slaughter  houses  and  storage  yards  of  the  most  un- 
sightly character,  it  being  the  base  of  the  San  Juan  Hill 
section,  inhabited  by  negroes.  Above  the  dividing  line, 
however,  is  one  of  the  finest  and  quietest  residential  dis- 
tricts of  the  city,  the  houses  being  surrounded  by  lawns, 
a  most  unusual  circumstance  on  Manhattan  Island.  No 
more  striking  effect  of  regulation  could  be  found  than  at 
this  point. 

It  always  works  out  that  the  stricter  the  regulations,  the 
greater  will  be  the  degree  of  real  personal  liberty  enjoyed 
by  the  whole  public,  for  lack  of  regulation,  with  consequent 
private  license,  is  always  destructive  of  the  interests  of  all 
except  those  who  wish  to  encroach  upon  the  rights  of  others. 

In  fact,  the  desirability  of  building  regulation  is  always 
so  great,  that  it  is  often  carried  out  by  private  initiative, 
as  for  example  in  the  suburbs  of  American  cities  in  which 
the  land  is  sold  with  certain  restrictions  as  to  the  minimum 
cost  of  the  buildings  to  be  erected.  Often,  also,  there  is  a 
prohibition  of  the  use  of  property  for  certain  purposes,  such 
as  for  the  sale  of  intoxicants  and  the  like. 

There  are,  in  fact,  a  far  greater  number  of  regulations 
in  effect  than  is  generally  recalled.  In  many  cities  saloons 
are  forbidden  in  certain  neighborhoods  and  within  certain 
distances  of  schools  or  churches,  while  the  social  evil  has 
often  been  confined  to  a  certain  district  or  districts,  as  in 


54  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Washington,  where  a  large  section  near  the  White  House 
has  until  very  recently  been  devoted  to  it,  and  in  Baltimore, 
where  a  number  of  small  sections  were  set  apart.  Traffic 
is  also  forbidden  in  hospital  streets  and  on  school  streets 
during  the  hours  children  are  going  to  and  from  school. 
Smoke  nuisances  are  prohibited  and  various  kinds  of  noises 
are  illegal.  In  some  cities,  already,  the  height  of  buildings 
is  controlled,  as  will  be  indicated  later,  and  more  and  more 
are  we  coming  to  realize  that  true  freedom  is  found  in 
proper  regulation. 


CHAPTER  V 

ARTERIAL  HIGHWAYS 

Arrangement  of  Highways;  Width  of  Streets;  Cutting 

New  Streets 

In  considering  the  various  problems  of  traffic  to  be 
solved,  the  principles  of  city  planning,  as  have  been  indi- 
cated, should  guide  the  work.  The  purpose  of  the  city 
should  be  kept  in  view  and  carried  out  in  the  best  possible 
manner. 

A  city  is  in  reality  a  kind  of  apparatus  or  mechanism 
consisting  of  fixed  places  in  which  to  live,  work  and  be 
amused,  with  means  of  access  thereto  and  means  of  trans- 
portation of  products  to  and  from  desired  points. 

The  first  duty  of  the  city  is  to  furnish  a  free  means  of 
access,  belonging  to  the  public,  to  the  private  property  of 
each  individual.  Such  avenues  of  communication  in  the 
rural  districts  are  called  roads,  and  are  widely  separated, 
but  in  cities  they  are  multiplied  and  called  streets.  It 
must  always  be  possible,  and  it  is  possible,  for  a  citizen 
to  take  to  the  highways  and  reach,  without  interference,  the 
land  of  any  other  citizen  throughout  the  United  States. 

In  a  city,  the  arrangement  of  highways  must  be  such 
that  the  citizens  who  traverse  them  in  great  numbers  may 
be  enabled  to  reach  their  destinations  with  the  greatest 
possible  despatch,  for  a  large  part  of  the  time  of  the  public 
is  consumed  in  merely  going  from  place  to  place.  The  daily 
movements  of  the  population  should  thus  be  studied  with 
the  utmost  thoroughness  and  the  streets  laid  out  so  that 
access  to  the  different  parts  of  the  city  may  be  had  from 
all  the  other  parts  in  the  most  direct  manner  possible. 

A  question  of  great  importance  to  the  civic  engineer 
in  the  laying  out  of  such  a  plan  is  that  of  grades,  as  many 


56 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


cities  are  built  on  hills  of  greater  or  less  height,  and  the 

arrangement  of  streets   and   avenues  must   be   such   as   to 

overcome  in  the  most  effective  manner  such  natural  obstacles. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  laying  out  a  city,  as  has  been 


£!la.-......„ w.{^.,^ 


£k: 


—  i.— -  5 — 10 

1. _  60 


Figs.  12,  13,  and  14.   cross  sections  of  proposed  arterial  streets, 

BERLIN 

A,  Elevated  and  Street  Railway;  B,  Subway  and  Street  Railway;  C,  Sunken  Rapid 
Transit  and  Street  Railway.  The  Figures  are  in  meters  {1  meter  equals  3.28  feet);  the 
Streets  are  196.8  feet  wide. 

pointed  out,  is  that  of  radial  streets  leading  to  the  principal 
center,  with  circumferential  concentric  streets,  but  sufficient 
variety  must  enter  into  such  a  layout  to  obviate  its  faults. 

The  principal  stream  of  passenger  traffic  during  the  day 
is  between  the  better  residential  districts  and  the  civic 
and  office  building  districts,   between  the  homes  of  work- 


ARTERIAL   HIGHWAYS 


57 


men  and  factory  districts,  between  both  the  residential  dis- 
tricts and  homes  of  workmen  and  the  retail  districts,  and 
in  the  evening  between  the  various  residential  districts  and 
places  of  amusement  and  recreation. 

Radial  avenues  leading  thus  to  the  civic  center,  adjoin- 
ing which  may  be   placed   the  retail  district,   and   similar 


D 


SiaLQ, 


Figs.  15,  16  and  17.   cross  section  of  proposed  arterial  streets, 

BERLIN 

D,  Sunken  Street  Railway;  E,  Rapid  Transit  Railway  between  two  Automobile  Roads 
with  elevated  overhead  Passageway  for  Pedestrians;  F,  Rapid  Transit  Railway  between 
two  Automobile  Roads  with  overhead  Street  Crossings.  The  Figures  are  in  meters  {I  meter 
equals  3.28 feet). 

important  avenues  into  the  shipping  and  manufacturing 
districts  will  take  care  of  the  main  passenger  and  pedestrian 
traffic  during  the  day,  while  at  night  the  amusement  center 
is  ordinarily  reached  over  the  same  lines  of  traffic,  since  it 
is  usually  found  between  the  retail  and  the  residential 
districts. 


58  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

There  is  no  great  need  for  important  streets  between 
the  various  residential  districts  of  a  city,  as  the  traffic 
between  them  is  light.  Through  such  districts,  however, 
a  driveway  or  boulevard  may  be  run.  A  pleasing  drive  is 
thus  afforded,  which  adds  greatly  to  the  attractiveness  of 
the  city. 

In  order  to  afford  ample  facilities  for  traffic  and  at  the 
same  time  to  avoid  unnecessary  outlays,  streets  in  varying 
widths  should  be  provided.  It  will  usually  be  found  that 
streets  of  three  different  widths  will  suffice  for  practically 
all  purposes;  that  is  to  say,  main  thoroughfares,  secondary 
thoroughfares  and  local  streets. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  better  to  err  on  the  side  of  having  streets 
too  wide  than  too  narrow.  A  city  should  have  as  a  mini- 
mum, 20  per  cent  of  its  area  devoted  to  streets,  while  40 
per  cent  is  a  far  better  allowance.  The  streets  of  the  city 
of  Washington,  which  are  unusually  wide  and  imposing, 
occupy  54  per  cent  of  the  city's  total  area. 

A  Prussian  law  of  1875,  enacted  to  cover  the  streets  of 
Berlin,  prescribed  that  the  main  streets  should  be  95  feet 
or  more  in  width,  secondary  thoroughfares  from  65  to  95 
feet  and  the  local  streets  from  40  to  65  feet.  Another 
standard  for  secondary  German  cities,  such  as  Diisseldorf, 
Cologne  and  Frankfort,  etc.,  is:  main  thoroughfares,  85  to 
120  feet,  secondary  thoroughfares,  50  to  80  feet  and  local 
streets,  35  to  48  feet. 

The  Royal  Commission  on  London  Traffic  in  the  report 
of  1905,  states: 

"The  chief  difficulty  that  stands  in  the  way  of  improving 
the  means  of  locomotion  in  London  is  the  narrowness  of  the 
streets,  and  the  fact  that  they  were  not  originally  laid  out 
on  any  general  plan." 

The  Commission  recommended  the  following  widths: 
main  avenues,  140  feet;  first-class  arterial  streets,  100  feet; 
second-class  arterial  streets,  80  feet;  third  class,  60  feet,  and 
fourth  class,  40  to  50  feet,  the  width  in  each  case  to  include 
the  footways  on  either  side,  and  no  street  to  be  less  than 
40  feet  in  width. 


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ARTERIAL  HIGHWAYS  59 

The  widths  of  the  more  prominent  avenues  in  European 
cities  are  as  follows: 

Avenue  des  Champs  Elysees,  Paris 250  feet 

Reeperbahn,  Hamburg 210  " 

Unter  den  Linden,  Berlin 190  " 

Ring-Strasse,  Vienna 185  " 

Belle  Alliance  Strasse,  Berlin 160  " 

Andrassy,  Buda-Pest 145  " 

Avenue  Henri  Martin,  Paris 130  " 

Whitehall,  London 120-145  " 

Victoria  Embankment,  London 120  " 

Potsdamer  Strasse,  Berhn 110  " 

Friedrich  Wilhelm  Strasse,  Berlin 110  " 

Princes  Street,  Edinburgh       100  " 

George  Street,  Edinburgh 100  " 

Avenue  de  I'Opera,  Paris 98  " 

Parisian  Boulevards,  Paris 98  " 

Holborn  Viaduct,  London 90  " 

Regent  Street  Quadrant,  London 85  " 

Piccadilly,  London 75  " 

Queen  Victoria  Street,  London 70  " 

The  first  consideration  in  determining  the  width  of  streets 
should  be  the  volume  of  traffic  which  they  will  be  called  upon 
to  accommodate.  After  making  allowance  for  street  car 
lines,  of  some  twenty  feet  for  a  double  track  system,  the  next 
consideration  is  whether  the  street  is  to  be  wide  enough  for 
one  line  of  vehicles  on  each  side  of  the  car  tracks  or  more 
than  one.  All  streets,  however,  on  which  car  lines  are  run, 
should  be  of  such  width  that  a  delivery  wagon  may  be 
backed  up  to  the  curb  and  room  still  be  left,  when  the  horse 
is  turned  parallel  with  the  street,  for  the  street  car  to  pass. 
In  figuring  the  width  of  the  street  necessary  to  accommodate 
two  lines  of  vehicles  on  either  side  of  the  car  track,  allowance 
should  be  made  of  from  seven  to  nine  feet  per  line  of  vehicles, 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  vehicular  traffic,  the  figure 
of  nine  feet  being  for  the  purpose  of  accommodating  the 
large  motor  trucks  which  are  coming  into  use  in  many  cities. 
The  width  of  sidewalks  is  generally  placed  at  one-third  of 
the  width  of  the  whole  street,  that  is,  one-sixth  on  either 


60  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

side,   though  it  may  be  greater  when  pedestrian  traffic  is 
above  the  normal. 

Mr.  John  Nolen  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Third  Na- 
tional conference  on  City  Planning,  at  Philadelphia,  May  17, 
1911,  gave  a  table  showing  how  the  widths  of  streets  from 
48  to  108  feet  is  made  up. 

Main  Thoroughfare 

A  double-track  car  line 20  feet 

6  lines  of  vehicles,  3  on  each  side  of  tracks,  8  feet  each    .    .  48     " 
20  lines  of  pedestrians,  10  lines  on  each  of  the  two  sidewalks, 

2  feet  each 40    " 

Total       108  feet 

Secondary  Thoroughfare 

A  double-track  car  line 20  feet 

4  lines  of  vehicles,  2  on  each  side  of  tracks,  8  feet  each    .    .  32     " 
16  lines  of  pedestrians,  8  lines  on  each  of  the  two  sidewalks, 

2  feet  each 32    " 

Total 84  feet 

Local  Streets 

Roadway  of  3  lines  of  vehicles,  8  feet  each 24  feet 

12  lines  of  pedestrians,  6  lines  on  each  of  the  two  sidewalks, 

2  feet  each 24    " 

Total 48  feet 

That  streets  should  be  of  ample  width  cannot  too  often 
be  insisted.  It  is,  indeed,  one  of  the  cardinal  principles  of 
modern  city  planning.  In  Berlin,  where  street  widening  is 
constantly  being  carried  on  and  new  streets  constructed,  a 
great  deal  of  attention  is  given  to  the  subject. 

A  competition  was  recently  held  in  which  large  prizes 
were  offered  for  the  best  projects  for  improving  and  en- 
larging the  city's  plan.  The  first  prize  was  won  by  Prof. 
Joseph  Brix  and  Prof.  Felix  Genzmer  in  collaboration. 

The  diagrams  Figs.  12  to  17  illustrate  some  of  the  forms 
of  street  construction  proposed  by  them. 


ARTERIAL  HIGHWAYS 


61 


Figs.  18  and  19.   replanning  of  several  main  street  arteries  in 
frankfort  on  the  main 
The  upper  figure  shows  the  original  and  the  lower  the  new  Street  Plan 


62  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Diagrams  A,  B  and  C  are  laid  out  for  streets  having  a 
width  of  60  meters  (186.8  feet).  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
first  contains  an  elevated  road,  the  second  a  subway  and  the 
third  a  depressed  railroad  in  an  open  trench  with  culverts  at 
cross  streets.  A  surface  car  line  is  on  each  side  of  the  rapid 
transit  road.  Between  the  sidewalk  and  the  building  line,  a 
space  is  left  for  grass  and  shrubbery. 

Diagrams  E  and  F  show  much  wider  streets,  E  being  72 
meters  (236.1  feet)  and  F,  70  meters  (229.6  feet). 

Plans  similar  to  E  and  F  have  also  been  prepared  for 
Paris  by  the  French  engineer  Frank.  Plan  E  is  a  kind  of 
overland  street  or  motor  parkway  for  high  speed  electric 
traction  and  automobiles.  At  certain  intervals  the  motor 
and  traction  lines  of  the  street  may  be  crossed  on  super- 
structures which  afford  access  to  the  stations  of  the  express 
lines. 

In  diagram  F,  the  superstructure  is  replaced  by  a  bridge, 
the  motor  and  traction  lines  being  depressed  in  an  open 
trench,  with  retaining  walls.  On  a  street  having  a  width  of 
forty  feet  more,  slopes  may  be  substituted  for  the  retaining 
walls,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines. 

Boulevards  should  always  be  limited  in  some  manner 
in  length,  if  not  by  terminals,  then  by  changes  in  direction, 
since  too  long  a  stretch  of  straight  street  degenerates  into  a 
blurred  and  characterless  horizon,  monotonous  and  uninterest- 
ing. 

Streets  and  avenues  too  long  and  too  straight  are  an 
evil,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  suffered  even  by  cities  famous 
for  their  city  planning.  Paris,  for  example,  has  too  many 
streets  with  vistas  dwindling  into  nothingness.  The  world- 
famous  Champs  Elysees  is  of  such  a  character.  New  York 
is  almost  wholly  composed  of  such  streets.  Broadway  from 
Bowling  Green  to  Grace  Church  is  an  uninterrupted  line, 
while  even  longer  stretches  characterize  the  street,  which 
extends  through  a  number  of  towns  to  the  north,  continuing 
to  bear  the  name  of  Broadway.  Fifth  Avenue  and  other 
New  York  streets,  in  fact  streets  in  almost  all  American 
cities,  are  ruined  by  their  inordinate  lengths  in  straight  lines. 


ARTERIAL  HIGHWAYS 


63 


The  principle  of  variety,  one  of  the  cardinal  principles  of 
design,  is  thus  disregarded.  In  the  modern  science  of  city 
planning,  streets  should  be  of  definite  lengths,  properly 
terminated,  or  curved  or  changed  otherwise  in  direction,  and 
by  no  means  necessarily  of  the  same  width  throughout. 
The  eye  should  rest  at  easy  distances  upon  columns,  arches, 


Figs.  20  and  20a.  plan  and  perspective  view  of  street  and  bridge 

APPROACHES  AT  FREIGHT  YARD  AND  RAILROAD  TERMINALS,  BERLIN 

statues,  fountains,  facades  or  other  suitable  objectives,  and 
the  quality  of  unity  thus  be  gained.  Without  a  termi- 
nal, a  vista  is  meaningless,  ^^^lat,  for  example,  would  the 
Avenue  de  I'Opera  be  without  the  closure  of  the  Grand 
Opera  House,  Rue  Royale  without  the  Madelaine,  Avenue 
Victoria  without  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  the  Vienna  Burgring 
without  the  Parliament  building,  the  Reichrathsstrasse  with- 
out the  Votiv  Kirke  and  Unter  den  Linden  without  the 
Brandenburg  Tor? 

An  interesting  feature  of  modern  city  planning  abroad 
is  the  constantly  progressing  reorganization  of  focal  points. 


64  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Thus  where  a  number  of  streets  join,  a  study  is  made  of  the 
conditions,  and  the  juncture,  if  necessary,  entirely  replatted 
and  a  suitable  structure  erected  in  such  a  position  as  to  be 
seen  to  the  best  effect  on  the  axis,  or  main  street  leading  to 
it.  In  this  way,  the  center  is  unified  and  given  a  new 
individuality. 

In  the  undertakings  of  city  planning,  foreign  cities  do  not 
hesitate  at  expense.  Paris  has  spent  $265,000,000  on  its 
reconstruction.  London  in  new  streets  has  spent  $100,000,- 
000  and  the  new  Commission  has  under  way  expenditures 
which  will  amount  to  $125,000,000  more.  Berlin  is  expending 
$80,000,000. 

That  expenditures  for  the  betterment  of  traffic  conditions 
are  justified  is  shown  by  a  calculation  made  with  reference 
to  an  improvement  in  a  portion  of  St.  Louis,  the  cutting 
through  of  Gravois  Avenue  to  13th  Street,  a  short  stretch  of 
three  blocks.  It  is  estimated  that  the  saving  in  time  to 
those  using  the  cut-off  would  amount  to  $500,000  a  year. 
The  calculation  is  on  the  following  basis:  The  saving  would 
amount  to  ten  minutes  a  day  each  way  for  every  person 
travelling  over  the  road.  In  a  year  this  would  total  100 
hours,  which  at  20  cents  an  hour  means  a  saving  of  $20  a 
year,  per  person,  or  for  a  traffic  of  25,000  daily,  but  one 
twenty-eighth  of  the  city's  population,  the  aggregate  of 
$500,000  per  annum. 

This  is  merely  for  a  small  improvement  in  a  city  of  no 
great  size  and  in  a  section  by  no  means  crowded.  What 
such  savings  mean  in  more  congested  districts  of  the  greater 
cities  may  readily  be  understood. 

An  important  improvement  of  this  character  recently 
proposed,  is  that  of  a  diagonal  street  from  the  Pennsylvania 
Terminal  at  7th  Avenue  and  32d  Street,  New  York,  to  the 
Grand  Central  Terminal  at  Fourth  Avenue  and  42d  Street. 
Such  a  new  avenue  would  intersect  Broadway  at  37th 
Street  and  reach  5th  Avenue  at  40th  Street  at  the  corner  of 
the  new  Library,  40th  Street  then  being  widened  to  Park  or 
Fourth  Avenue  to  join  the  approach  to  the  Grand  Central 
Depot  at  42d  Street. 


ARTERIAL  HIGHWAYS 


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Fig.  21.  proposed  modified  great  ground  plan  of  Chicago 


Showing  Arterial  Highways,  Civic  Center,  Railway  Stations,  Yacht  Harbor,  Pleasure 
Boat  Piers  and  Parks.     {Copyrighted  by  the  Commercial  Club.) 


66  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

In  reference  to  the  London  improvements,  large  numbers 
of  British  officials  have  visited  Germany  and  other  conti- 
nental countries  in  recent  years,  to  familiarize  themselves 
with  modern  city  planning.  A  hundred  foot  street  from 
High  Holborn  Street  southward,  terminating  in  a  crescent 
opening  on  the  Strand  at  a  point  opposite  Wellington  Street 
and  towards  Fleet  Street,  is  one  of  the  more  important  of  the 
resulting  projects.  Another  is  King  Edward  Square,  reach- 
ing from  Whitehall  Street  into  St.  James  Park. 

The  present,  it  will  thus  be  seen,  is  a  time  of  renaissance 
in  city  planning,  if  not  an  entirely  new  era,  and  the  greatest 
of  results  are  being  and  will  continue  to  be  accomplished. 


CHAPTER  VI 

STREETS   UP-TO-DATE 

Appearance  of  Streets;  General  Service  Tunnel  and  Pipe 
Galleries;  Street  Fixtures;  Safety  Isles;  Sidewalks;  Police 
and  Fire  Alarm  Systems;   Shade  Trees 

The  appearance  of  a  city  and  the  impression  which  visit- 
ors as  well  as  residents  receive,  is  dependent  far  more  than 
is  popularly  supposed,  upon  the  appearance  of  the  street 
itself,  that  is  the  street  surface,  as  considered  apart  from  the 
buildings. 

In  order  that  streets  may  have  the  best  possible  appear- 
ance, they  should  be  constructed  by  competent  and  experi- 
enced engineers,  and  when  in  use,  must  not  be  allowed  to 
deteriorate.  Repairs  should  be  made  at  the  slightest  sign 
of  a  break.  If  the  repairs  are  neglected,  the  breaks  become 
rapidly  larger,  with  a  consequent  quickly  mounting  increase 
in  the  cost  of  making  the  street  good  again,  while  during  the 
time  the  breaks  exist,  the  appearance  of  the  street  is  spoiled 
and,  unless  the  breaks  are  thoroughly  repaired,  its  appearance 
is  never  as  good  as  before. 

The  point  of  view  of  the  average  American  toward  the 
streets  is  largely  responsible  for  the  bad  conditions  which 
almost  invariably  prevail.  The  American  seems  to  regard 
streets  as  a  sort  of  necessary  evil,  and  their  repair  as  a  more 
or  less  superfluous  expense.  He  seems  to  feel  that  as  only 
one  vehicle  at  a  time  passes  over  a  hole,  a  little  care  on  the 
part  of  the  driver  would  save  the  city  the  expense  of  the 
repairs. 

Nevertheless,  no  expense  that  a  city  can  go  to  is  much 
better  repaid  than  that  of  keeping  the  streets  in  a  thorough 
condition  of  repair.     With  good  streets,  drivers  make  much 


68  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

better  speed,  greater  loads  may  be  carried,  and  the  wear 
and  tear  on  the  vehicles  is  greatly  reduced.  Accidents  and 
breakdowns  are  obviated,  with  consequent  saving  of  expense 
to  vehicle  owners,  and  the  streets  are  much  more  readily 
kept  in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition. 

Americans  have  in  reality  little  or  no  conception  of  the 
condition  in  which  a  street  should  be  maintained  until  they 
have  seen  the  remarkable  smooth  and  clean  streets  of  Euro- 
pean cities.  Their  excellence,  which  might  easily  be  rivalled 
by  American  streets,  is  due  to  the  thorough  methods  of  con- 
struction, and  the  high  degree  of  engineering  skill  retained. 

One  of  the  unmitigated  evils  suffered  is  the  constant 
tearing  up  of  streets  for  the  purposes  of  laying  pipes  of 
various  kinds.  In  streets  properly  designed,  the  piping  sys- 
tems for  gas  and  water,  and  conduits  for  electric  cables 
should  be  provided  in  ample  capacity,  with  a  sufficient 
number  of  side  outlets  to  take  care  of  future  connections. 

In  large  cities  it  is  advisable  to  have  tunnels,  which  may 
be  arranged  to  contain  all  the  water,  gas  and  steam  piping, 
pneumatic  postal  tubes,  lighting,  power,  fire  and  police  and 
telephone  cables,  and  also,  beneath  the  floor  of  the  tunnel,  a 
sewer.  Such  a  general  service  tunnel,  while  expensive  in 
first  cost,  amply  repays  the  city  as  well  as  the  abutting 
property.  No  work  of  any  character  should  be  performed 
on  public  territory  except  by  special  permission  from  the 
building  departments.  This  should  apply  equally  to  pub- 
lic-service corporations,  operating  gas  works,  electric  light  and 
power  works,  street  railways,  and  elevated  and  underground 
railways.  When  it  becomes  necessary  to  repair  underground 
works  or  to  make  additions  thereto,  or  to  erect  fences  or 
scaffolding,  the  building  department  should  issue  the  neces- 
sary permit  but  should  reserve  the  right  to  restore  the  street 
and  sidewalk  pavements  to  their  original  condition,  and  the 
owner  of  the  property  involved  should  be  taxed  the  total 
cost  of  effecting  these  repairs. 

Gas  and  electric  connections  should  always  be  made  by 
the  companies  themselves,  the  cost  thereof  being  charged  to 
the  owners  of  the  property  involved.     Private  electricians 


TAUENTZIEN    STREET,    BERLIN 

Showing  ccnlrnl  promenade  lined  by  flower  beds,  ouler  roadways,  uniform  height  of 

buildings  and  church  as  a  focal  point 


CHARLES    GATE,    MUNICH 

A  semi-circular  public  square,  with  parking  for  automobiles  and  cabs  on  cither 

side  and  waiting  station  for  street  cars 


r 


GAIETY    THKATKE,    LONDON 


SI .    PEi  KH  S    AT    ROME 
Dominalion  of  important  squares  by  public  buildings 


STREETS   UP-TO-DATE  69 

and  plumbers  should  never  be  authorized  to  tear  up  the  streets 
for  the  purpose  of  making  gas  or  light  connections. 

In  order  that  the  derangement  of  traffic  and  annoyance 
involved  in  building  operations  upon  the  streets  may  be  re- 
duced as  much  as  possible,  the  plan  adopted  in  Hamburg  is 
found  to  be  a  good  one.  An  annual  meeting  is  held  which 
is  called  by  the  director  of  underground  works,  who  is  the 
chief  of  the  central  bureau  of  the  engineering  department. 
These  meetings  are  attended  by  eight  members  and  one 
secretary  of  the  public  building  departments,  four  members 
of  the  street  railway  companies,  and  one  representative  each 
of  the  electric  lighting  and  power  company,  the  gas  company, 
the  water  works,  the  traffic  police  departments,  the  fire  de- 
partment and  the  telephone  and  telegraph  department. 

The  program  is  prepared  in  advance  for  these  meetings, 
containing  several  hundred  different  items,  nearly  all  of 
which  relate  to  the  repair  of  street  pavements.  The  pro- 
gram is  sent  out  in  advance  to  various  persons  who  attend 
the  meeting  and  during  the  discussion  thereof  arrangements 
are  made  to  have  all  necessary  work  in  a  given  locality  per- 
formed at  the  same  time,  as  far  as  possible.  These  annual 
meetings  have  proved  to  be  extremely  useful  not  only  in 
reducing  the  cost  of  effecting  changes,  but  in  minimizing 
inconvenience  to  the  public.  A  further  reference  to  the 
subject  will  be  made  in  a  later  chapter. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  surfacing  of  American  streets  is 
without  adequate  foundation,  and  the  curvature  is  too  slight, 
which  allows  water  to  remain  and  evaporate,  instead  of 
running  off  quickly. 

One  of  the  greatest  defects  of  American  streets  consists 
in  their  being  defaced  by  a  multitude  of  minor  obstructions, 
extending  from  half  an  inch  to  one  or  two  inches  above  the 
surface,  such,  for  example,  as  the  extremely  numerous  and 
poorly  fitted  manhole  covers  of  sewer  and  electric  cable  pits 
and  underground  trolley  channels;  protruding  gas  and  water 
valve  caps,  and  the  poor  junctures  of  the  street  railway  rails 
with  the  street  surfacing. 

The  smooth  surface  of    the   street  is  thus  entirely  de- 


70  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

stroyed,  the  cost  of  cleaning  and  flushing  increased,  and 
danger  and  interruption  to  traflfic  and  wear  and  tear  on 
vehicles  greatly  augmented. 

The  discharge  openings  of  the  gutters  to  the  sewer  pits 
are  badly  constructed,  and  unsightly  and  dangerous  in  the 
extreme.  The  holes  are  so  large  that  it  not  infrequently 
happens  that  children  fall  into  them  and  are  drowned. 
Such  openings  need  not  be  placed  exactly  at  the  corner,  and 
the  street  immediately  before  them  need  not  be  sunk  so 
sharply,  but  instead,  an  easier  grade  should  be  provided,  and 
the  openings  protected  by  well-designed  gratings  with  a  clear- 
ance between  bars  of  not  more  than  one  and  one-half  inches. 

It  is  advisable  in  the  streets  most  used  for  promenading 
to  have  iron  or  steel  gutter  covers  at  crossings,  the  width  of 
the  sidewalks,  both  for  the  main  street  and  for  the  side 
street,  thus  affording  a  smooth  promenade  from  block  to 
block  and  saving  the  necessity  of  stepping  down  into  the 
streets  and  out  again  at  every  crossing. 

What  has  been  said  with  reference  to  the  appearance  of 
the  streets  is  equally  applicable  to  the  appearance  of  the 
sidewalks. 

It  is  even  more  important  that  they  should  be  as  smooth 
as  possible,  and  entirely  free  from  obstructions  of  every 
character. 

City  officials  of  some  American  cities  are  following  the 
example  of  those  of  European  cities  in  this  respect,  and 
improvements  are  gradually  being  eiTected. 

Regulations  of  the  following  nature  are  in  force  in  many 
European  cities,  and  while  some  of  them  may  appear  radical 
to  those  unfamiliar  with  the  question,  they  have  all  proven 
in  practice  to  be  of  the  greatest  utility. 

Curb-stones  should  not  be  more  than  six  or  eight  inches 
above  the  abutting  roadway. 

The  corners  of  the  sidewalk  should  have  an  easy  radius, 
of  not  less  than  six  feet. 

The  sidewalk  should  have  a  gradual  slope  towards  the 
street,  and  should  be  as  smooth  and  uniform  in  material  as 
possible. 


STREETS   UP-TO-DATE 


71 


Manhole  covers  in  the  sidewalk  should  be  exactly  flush 
with  the  sidewalks  at  their  edges,  and  should  not  rise  more 
than  half  an  inch  at  their  centers.  They  should  be  entirely 
free  from  spikes,  rivet  heads  and  sharp  corrugations,  and  if 
there  are  corrugations  and  projecting  points,  their  upper 
surface  must  be  not  less  than  one-third  of  the  total  area  of 
the  cover. 

No  open  gratings  whatsoever  to  be  allowed,  either  for 
purposes  of  lighting  or  ventilation.     This  regulation  should 


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safety  isles  as  followed  in  many  european  cities  • 

be  enforced  against  municipal  subways  as  well  as  against 
private  owners.  Its  necessity  cannot  be  too  strongly  em- 
phasized, because  there  is  a  growing  tendency  to  discharge 
foul  and  hot  air,  dust,  odors,  etc.,  into  the  faces  of  pedes- 
trians, a  practice  that  is  peculiarly  disagreeable  to  women, 
and  one  which  would  not  be  tolerated  half  an  hour  in  any 
German  town.  Neither  should  such  gases  and  foul  air  be 
discharged  from  openings  in  the  walls  of  the  building 
towards  the  sidewalk.  The  only  proper  method  of  such 
discharge  is  through  shafts  or  chimney  to  the  roof  and 
carried  up  a  suitable  height. 

No  steps  leading  either  upward  or  downward  from  the 
sidewalk  should  be  permitted  outside  the  building  line,  and 
no  railings  of  any  kind  should  be  permitted  on  the  street.  , 


72  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

No  show-cases  or  obstructions  of  any  kind  should  be 
permitted  on  the  sidewalk. 

No  window  exhibits  or  demonstrations  should  be  per- 
mitted of  such  a  character  as  to  collect  crowds  of  curiosity- 
seekers  in  the  street  and  thus  obstruct  traffic. 

No  elevators  from  basements  should  be  permitted  to 
open  on  the  sidewalks,  but  should  open  in  recesses  in  the 
sides  of  the  building. 

The  placing  of  temporary  bridging  or  planking  from 
trucks  in  the  street,  across  the  sidewalk  to  the  building 
should  be  prohibited.  This  is  an  abuse  that  is  particularly 
practiced  in  American  cities,  and  pedestrians  must  con- 
stantly take  to  the  streets  to  get  around  these  wagons. 
Tenants  of  such  buildings  have  not  the  slightest  right  to 
block  the  streets  in  such  a  way,  and  it  amounts  to  a  serious 
inconvenience  and  Imposition  upon  the  users  of  the  side- 
walk. It  should  be  obviated  by  constructing  recesses  in  the 
building  into  which  the  trucks  could  be  backed  for  unload- 
ing, or  by  the  use  of  interior  wagonways,  courts  or  yards. 
The  sidewalk  at  the  point  of  entrance  of  such  wagonways 
should  not  be  depressed  at  the  curb,  but  removable  cast 
iron  or  steel  gutter  plates  should  be  provided  to  enable  the 
trucks  to  get  in  from  the  street. 

The  use  of  the  streets  for  loading  and  unloading  mail 
wagons  also  proves  a  serious  nuisance.  The  Government 
has  no  right  whatsoever,  in  the  conduct  of  its  operations,  to 
obstruct  the  public  highways  in  such  a  manner,  any  more 
than  has  the  business  man.  The  Government,  indeed,  sets 
a  bad  example  and  is  the  more  reprehensible.  Mail  should 
be  loaded  and  unloaded  in  courts. 

Express  companies  are  old  offenders  in  the  use  of  the 
sidewalks  as  freight  sorting  stations,  but  in  certain  cities 
they  have  been  compelled  to  adopt  the  plan  of  courts  and 
interior  wagonways. 

In  the  construction  of  new  buildings  the  use  of  the  side- 
walk should  be  preserved  to  the  public  for  at  least  half  of  its 
width,  and  for  the  remainder,  which  is  occupied  by  the 
builders,   a  rental  should  be  paid  to  the  city.     A  further 


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STREETS   UP-TO-DATE  73 

rental  should  be  paid  to  the  city  for  the  storage  of  building 
materials  in  the  streets,  such  as  sand,  stone,  etc.,  and  for 
the  use  of  the  streets  for  mortar  beds  and  hoisting  engines. 

When  platforms  over  sidewajiks  are  required,  they  should 
in  no  case  be  higher  than  three  steps,  or  two  feet  above  the 
sidewalk  level,  while  the  rental  for  the  second  and  third  steps 
should  be  progressively  higher.  In  large  cities  especially,  the 
continual  erection  of  new  buildings  proves  a  source  of  the 
greatest  inconvenience  to  the  public,  and  renders  the  streets 
unsightly  and  dangerous.  It  is  customary  to  erect  a  heavy 
bridge  over  the  sidewalk,  along  the  frontage,  arid  this  re- 
mains a  fixture  for  from  three  to  six  months  or  more.  As 
soon  as  it  is  removed,  another  appears  somewhere  in  the 
neighborhood,  and  a  chronic  condition  of  disturbance  is  the 
result.  Such  temporary  structures  may  with  little  expense 
be  made  of  a  decorative  nature,  instead  of  being  left  spots 
of  ugliness.  The  timbers  should  be  dressed  and  painted, 
and  corners  fitted  in  a  neat  manner,  the  roof  tight  and  the 
whole  finished  with  latticework  painted  green,  or  some  other 
such  decorative  treatment  given.  Large  advertisements 
should  not  be  permitted,  but  a  small  one,  stating  the  name 
of  the  architect,  the  contractor,  and  the  name  of  the  building 
or  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  occupied,  may  be  permitted. 
Such  a  plan  of  treatment  has  great  advertising  value  and 
disposes  the  public  favorably  to  the  whole  undertaking.  It 
is  a  paying  proposition.  At  the  suggestion  of  the  Municipal 
Art  Commission,  it  is  being  voluntarily  adopted  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  New  York  City.  It  should,  however,  be 
a  matter  of  law,  as  the  unsightliness  of  building  operations  is 
a  nuisance  to  the  public  and  a  distinct  loss  to  the  merchants 
of  the  neighborhood.  During  such  operation,  certain  classes 
of  building  materials  stored  and  in  use  and  rubbish  being 
removed  should  be  wetted  down  to  prevent  dust. 

Space  under  the  sidewalks  should  not  be  given  over  to 
private  uses. 

Fire  hydrants,  especially  in  prominent  streets,  if  not 
placed  against  the  building  wall,  should  be  sunk  below  the 
surface,   not  only  for  the  sake  of  the  appearance  of  the 


74  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

street,  but  to  obviate  danger  of  freezing  in  winter.  Covers 
for  such  hydrants  should  be  flush  with  the  sidewalk,  and 
properly  marked.  Objection  may  be  made  that  in  case  of 
fire,  such  hydrants  would  be  difficult  to  find,  but  this  is 
overcome  by  signs  placed  on  the  buildings,  directly  over  the 
hydrant,  in  the  form  of  a  red  H,  and  by  other  sign  inter- 
mediate, with  arrows  pointing  both  ways,  giving  the  number 
of  meters  to  the  fire  hydrants  in  either  direction. 

Letter  boxes  should  be  placed  on  the  houses  instead  of  on 
posts,  and  should  be  provided  in  ample  numbers  and  painted 
a  noticeable  color.  In  Germany,  they  are  painted  a  golden 
yellow. 

The  names  of  streets  should  preferably  be  placed  on  the 
corners  of  buildings,  and  each  of  the  four  corners  should 
have  the  names  of  both  streets.  This  is  a  cheaper  and  more 
effective  method  than  the  placing  of  signs  on  posts,  which 
obstruct  the  sidewalk,  and  which,  owing  to  the  expense,  are 
usually  only  placed  on  two  of  the  corners,  diagonally.  The 
post  method,  is,  however,  at  times  a  necessity. 

When  electric  light  posts  are  placed  on  the  corners, 
a  good  form  of  street  sign  consists  of  a  frame  of  four  sides, 
carrying  the  names  of  the  streets,  two  sides  of  the  frame 
being  parallel  and  the  other  two  sides  converging  inwardly, 
the  shorter  parallel  side,  about  12  inches  long,  bearing  the 
name  of  the  main  street  and  facing  that  street,  while  the  long 
parallel  side,  bearing  the  same  name,  is  turned  towards  the 
sidewalk,  and  is  clearly  visible  to  one  approaching  along  the 
side  street.  The  name  of  the  side  street  is  placed  on  the  two 
converging  sides,  and  therefore  more  clearly  visible  from 
street  cars  than  if  placed  at  right  angles.  Thfe  placing  of 
such  signs  on  lighting  posts  enables  them  to  be  seen  readily 
at  night. 

The  combination  of  a  white  letter  on  a  blue  ground  has 
proven  to  be  the  best  arrangement  of  colors. 

No  temporary  stanchions  for  awnings  should  be  per- 
mitted on  the  sidewalks,  or  awnings  or  canopies  erected, 
leading  from  the  building  to  the  curb,  as  is  done  by  hotels, 
churches,  restaurants,  dry  goods  stores  and  private  hostesses. 


STREETS   UP-TO-DATE  75 

If  desired  for  permanent  uses  on  hotels,  stores,  and  the  like, 
they  should  be  permanent  structures  of  appropriate  design, 
without  advertisements,  and  carried  from  the  building  itself. 
Marquises  for  windows  should  in  no  case  be  less  than  eight 
feet  above  the  sidewalk. 

Advertising  signs  or  signs  of  any  nature  should  not  pro- 
ject from  the  building  unless  at  least  twelve  feet  above  the 
sidewalk,  and  in  no  case  should  they  project  more  than  three 
or  four  feet.  Any  other  method  is  unsightly  and  dangerous, 
while  no  useful  purpose  is  served  by  the  senseless  competi- 
tion in  signs  which  results  when  no  regulations  are  enforced. 

No  building  should  carry  any  sign  except  that  of  the 
business  conducted  in  it,  and  the  size  and  design  of  large 
signs  on  the  tops  of  the  buildings,  of  a  permanent  or  semi- 
permanent nature,  should  be  approved  by  the  City  Art 
commission. 

A  city  may  b'e  said  to  have  two  individualities,  or  to 
produce  two  impressions:  that  created  by  its  appearance 
during  the  day  and  that  by  its  appearance  at  night.  The 
latter  is  likely  to  be  the  more  picturesque,  and  it  is  not 
infrequently  the  impression  by  which  the  city  is  best  known. 
For  this  reason,  as  well  as  for  the  convenience  and  safety  of 
its  citizens,  it  is  the  duty  of  a  city  to  have  its  lighting  system 
planned  with  as  much  care  and  attention  as  is  devoted  to  any 
other  phase  of  its  design. 

Lamp  posts,  although  a  necessity,  offer  at  the  same  time 
opportunities  for  decorative  treatment,  and  they  may  thus 
be  made  to  serve  as  an  embellishment  to  the  city,  both  by 
day  and  by  night.  Wiring,  however,  should,  wherever  possi- 
ble, be  carried  underground. 

In  Germany  the  best  practice  in  street  illumination  is  to 
have  powerful  flaming  arc  lamps  swung  at  some  height, 
rather  than  to  have  more  numerous  and  smaller  lamps  placed 
at  a  lower  elevation.  Although  the  tungsten  lamp  was 
originated  and  developed  in  Germany,  it  is  very  little  used 
for  street  lighting  in  that  country.  Very  few  American 
streets  would  pass  muster  as  to  illumination  in  Germany, 
and  it  should  therefore  be  the  duty  of  American  lighting 


76  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

engineers  to  study  the  factors  which  have  made  for  success 
there. 

A  new  tungsten  light  for  street  illumination  is  coming 
into  use  abroad,  however,  the  nitrogen-filled  tungsten  lamp, 
which  runs  up  to  from  2,000  to  5,000  candle-power  and  which 
may  be  developed  up  to  10,000,  candle-power,  far  in  excess  of 
the  arc  lamp.  It  is  the  most  economical  of  the  high-power 
lamps  and  even  superior  to  the  arc  lamp  for  street  lighting. 

As  will  be  seen  by  the  accompanying  illu"stratio<ns,  most 
effective  results  are  obtained  by  lamps  placed  high.  The 
basic  reason  for  so  placing  the  lamps  is  to  secure  the  most 
uniform  distribution  of  light  possible.  The  sun,  a  single 
light,  furnishes  the  best  object  lesson  in  even  distribution  of 
light,  and  could  a  city  be  lit  by  a  single  lamp  the  result 
would  be  the  most  nearly  ideal  obtainable.  Such  a  lamp 
would,  of  course,  need  to  be  hung  at  a  great  height  and  be  of 
great  power.  From  a  commercial  point  of  view  it  would  not 
be  economical,  and  the  problem  which  confronts  the  lighting 
engineer  is  to  proportion  the  height  and  power  of  the  lamp 
so  as  to  secure  the  most  economical,  effective  and  uniform 
distribution  of  light. 

In  Germany,  where  electric  illumination  has  been  for 
years  a  highly  developed  science,  the  fact  has  long  been 
established  beyond  question,  that  the  best  results  are  ob- 
tained with  arc  lamps  placed  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet  in 
height,  according  to  their  illuminating  power.  A  directly 
contrary  practice  is  much  in  vogue  in  America,  that  in  which 
electroliers  with  from  three  to  five  tungsten  lamps,  at  a 
height  of  from  thirteen  to  sixteen  feet,  are  placed  at  intervals 
of  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet.  This  is  a  costly  method  of 
lighting,  and  one  which  is  injurious  to  the  eyes  on  account  of 
the  unequal  distribution  of  light,  the  pedestrian  being  more 
or  less  blinded  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  light  with 
contraction  of  the  pupils,  while  a  few  steps  further  the  pupils 
must  dilate.  This  constant  alternation  produces  a  fatigue, 
the  cause  of  which  is  not  understood  by  the  public.  In  cities 
abroad,  with  streets  suitably  lighted,  the  illumination  remains 
unnoticed,  being  agreeably  uniform. 


STREETS   UP-TO-DATE  77 

A  new  form  of  high-powered  arc  lamp,  placed  at  less  than 
fifteen  feet  from  the  street  level,  is  being  introduced  in 
American  cities.  The  light  being  from  a  single  point,  the 
bad  effects  of  the  tungsten  clusters  just  described  are 
magnified. 

However,  American  lighting  engineers  are  beginning  to 
recognize  the  value  of  the  principles  pointed  out,  and  where 
they  are  free  to  do  so,  they  take  advantage  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  serve  the  public  properly. 

The  superiority  of  German  street  illumination  cannot  be 
ascribed  to  any  particularly  favorable  factors.  It  is  rather 
a  refinement  at  every  possible  point.  The  whole  subject  is 
treated  in  a  thorough-going  manner  and  improvements  all 
along  the  line  are  adopted.  Many  well-lighted  German 
cities  spend  less  per  mile  than  do  American  cities,  though 
admittedly  better  lighted,  so  that  the  greater  density  of 
population  in  German  cities  does  not  account  for  the  superior 
illumination.  The  cost  per  unit  of  operation  shows  also, 
when  compared,  that  Germany  has  no  special  advantages 
over  this  country  in  either  cost  of  keeping  lights  in  operation 
or  cost  of  carbons. 

Among  the  causes  which  are  to  blame  for  conditions  in 
the  United  States  is  that  of  lack  of  uniformity  in  systems 
and  installations  in  most  of  our  cities.  Along  a  given  street 
will  be  found  municipal  lighting  systems  supplemented  by 
private  lighting  of  a  different  character,  which  produce  a 
jumbled  and  inartistic  effect.  Such  conditions  may  arise 
from  lack  of  power  to  handle  the  situation  on  the  part  of 
the  municipal  officials,  laws  frequently  being  required  to 
authorize  changes  which  should  be  under  the  control  of  an 
administrative  officer. 

For  example,  it  often  happens  that  a  city  is  bound  by 
law  to  pay  no  more  than  a  stipulated  amount  per  annum 
for  each  lamp.  It  is  obvious  that  no  company  could  afford 
to  introduce  a  lamp  costing  perhaps  twice  as  much,  even 
if  it  produces  several  times  as  much  light,  until  after  some 
new  laws  had  been  passed,  usually  by  aldermen  who  know 
little  or  nothing  of  the  subject.     Nevertheless,  though  slow 


78  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

to  gain  adoption,  improved  forms  of  high  candle-power 
are  certain,  on  account  of  their  economy,  to  make  headway 
and  in  time  to  displace  units  of  a  lower  efficiency  in  streets 
in  which  it  is  desired  to  have  any  real  degree  of  illumination. 

A  further  advantage  of  high-swung  lamps  is  that  they 
do  not  obstruct  the  streets  so  much  and  that  they  afford 
a  much  more  effective  method  of  illumination  of  the  archi- 
tectural features  of  the  city.  They  are  much  more  desir- 
able, also,  in  the  effect  on  the  eyes,  not  producing  the  glare 
caused  by  the  nearness  to  the  surface  of  the  clustered  lamps. 

Although  it  has  been  held  that  in  some  cases  the  require- 
ments of  merchants  or  the  position  of  trees  in  residential 
districts  may  militate  against  the  use  of  high  lamps,  it  has 
nevertheless  been  found  in  foreign  practice  that  the  high 
lamp  can  always  be  adapted  to  produce  results  as  good  as 
the  low  lamp,  if  not  better. 

However,  if  adventitious  circumstances  necessitate  the 
use  of  low  lamps,  ornamental  metal  standards  of  graceful 
design,  equipped  with  tungsten  lamps  in  artistic  globes  and 
with  the  wires  underground,  are  much  to  be  preferred  to  the 
ugly  wooden  poles  carrying  lamps  and  overhead  wires,  or 
to  the  festoons  of  incandescent  lights  which  span  the  streets 
of  some  of  our  cities.  A  type  of  arc  lamp  which  is  coming 
into  increasing  use  in  the  ornamental  lighting  system  of 
American  cities,  and  which  appears  to  possess  a  high  degree  of 
efficiency,  is  the  magnetite,  or  so-called  Luminous  Arc. 

In  European  cities,  a  strong  rival  of  electric  illumination 
is  the  high  candle-power  gas  lamp,  and  in  many  cities  which 
operate  their  own  gas  plants  and  where  the  electric  concerns 
are  privately  owned,  it  is  found  expedient  to  use  the  gas 
lamps.  These  are  built  for  special  purposes  up  to  5,000 
candle-power  per  unit  for  high-pressure  gas,  and  up  to 
3,000  candle-power  for  low-pressure  gas,  while  the  usual 
electric  flaming  arc  is  only  about  2,000  candle-power.  In 
the  city  of  Berlin  gas  lamps  are  much  used,  as  the  city 
owns  its  own  gas  plants.  In  some  of  the  mains  a  pressure 
of  17  pounds  is  maintained.  In  New  York  City  the  highest 
specified  pressure  is  1.16  ounces. 


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STREETS   UP-TO-DATE  79 

In  many  foreign  cities  both  gas  and  electric  lamps  are 
lighted  and  extinguished  from  a  central  control,  and  in  addi- 
tion in  the  electric  lighting  system,  if  a  lamp  is  out  of  com- 
mission, the  fact  is  automatically  indicated  in  the  central 
station. 

Where  overhead  trolley  systems  are  used,  the  trolley  wire 
should  be  carried  from  the  lighting  posts  or  from  buildings, 
and  wherever  possible,  separate  poles  should  be  avoided,  but 
if  it  is  necessary  to  use  them,  they  should  not  be  merely 
dressed  trunks  of  trees,  but  poles  of  appropriate  and  orna- 
mental design. 

The  cultivation  of  shade  trees  has  proven  very  advan- 
tageous in  European  cities,  as  the  trees  in  affording  shade 
increase  the  attractiveness  of  the  street.  They  also  reduce 
the  amount  of  flying  dust  and  temper  the  winds,  improve 
the  air  and  conduce  to  the  healthfulness  of  the  city.  Shade 
trees  should  be  planted  two  or  two  and  a  half  feet  back 
from  the  outside  edge  of  the  curb,  and  an  earth  surface  of 
from  two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  in  diameter  left  around 
the  trunk  for  natural  watering. 

In  addition  to  this,  a  desirable  method  of  watering  is 
that  of  gutter  seepage,  a  hole  being  cut  in  the  curbing, 
protected  by  a  grating,  and  the  water  finding  its  way  through 
the  earth  to  the  tree  roots. 

In  some  European  cities,  waste-paper  baskets  of  meshed 
wire  are  placed  at  intervals  around  the  trunks  of  trees  and 
the  bases  of  lighting  poles.  The  bottoms  of  such  baskets 
are  some  two  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  street,  and  the 
tops  two  feet  or  so  higher.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  police  and  of 
the  individual  citizen  to  see  that  no  garbage  is  thrown  on 
the  sidewalks  or  into  the  streets,  since  the  baskets  being 
conveniently  placed,  afford  a  place  for  such  rubbish.  The 
streets  are  thus  much  more  easily  cleaned,  and  do  not  so 
quickly  become  cluttered  with  rubbish. 

European  cities  have  solved  in  a  most  admirable  manner 
the  question  of  the  removal  of  garbage.  Two  systems  are 
particularly  to  be  recommended  for  adoption  in  American 
cities,    where   garbage  removal   is   conducted   in   the   most 


80  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

primitive,  unsanitary  and  disgusting  manner  that  could  well 
be  devised. 

One  system  is  that  of  individual  wheeled  cans  or  recep- 
tacles. They  are  filled  by  the  householder  and  are  self- 
closing.  They  are  placed,  at  certain  hours,  on  the  streets, 
and  are  carted  away,  without  being  opened,  to  be  emptied 
at  the  incinerator,  the  householder  being  provided  with 
another  can. 

This  system  protects  the  public  and  the  employees  of 
the  department  removing  the  garbage,  and  reduces  the  dis- 
agreeable features  of  garbage  removal  to  a  minimum.  It 
is  used,  for  example,  in  Munich  and  Dresden. 

Another  system  almost  equally  effective,  but  somewhat 
more  expensive  in  first  cost,  is  that  of  providing  pits  in  the 
sidewalk  with  a  suitably  hinged  cover;  the  pit  serving  as  a 
receptacle  for  a  removable  garbage  can.  The  removal  cart 
lifts  the  can  out,  and  its  contents  are  dumped  into  the  cart, 
through  a  special  opening  in  the  top  of  the  cart,  which  is  a 
closed  one,  the  can  having  a  dump  bottom.  There  is  thus 
no  opportunity  for  the  contents  to  escape  into  the  air. 
This  system  is  highly  desirable,  since  it  keeps  the  unsightly 
cans  off  the  streets  and  prevents  the  escape  of  particles  of 
garbage. 

Where  ashes  or  refuse  are  dumped  from  open  cans,  the 
removal  carts  should  always  be  closed,  and  provided  with 
four  openings  for  the  ready  distribution  of  garbage  in  their 
interiors. 

In  wide  streets  in  which  vehicular  traffic  is  heavy,  so- 
called  safety  isles  should  be  placed  to  facilitate  crossing. 
Such  isles  should  be  edged  with  granite  curbing,  some  six 
inches  above  the  crown  of  the  street,  and  should  be  about 
four  feet  in  width  and  of  suitable  length.  They  may  be 
placed  at  the  side  of  the  street  car  tracks  or  in  the  center  of 
the  street  and  added  prominence  may  be  given  to  them  by 
ornamental  electroliers. 

Pictorial  advertising  on  a  large  scale  on  the  streets  is 
not  favored  abroad,  where  the  advertising  is  confined  either 
to  newspapers  or  to  small  artistic  posters  placed  on  special 


STREETS  UP-TO-DATE  81 

columns,  some  three  or  four  feet  in  diameter,  each  of  which 
carries  a  dozen  or  more  posters.  The  effort  is  to  attract  atten- 
tion rather  by  the  artistic  effect  of  a  poster,  than  by  its  size. 

Such  advertising  columns  may  with  advantage  be  placed 
on  safety  isles,  or  in  public  squares  or  at  spacious  corners. 
The  interiors  of  such  columns  are  fitted  with  switches  or 
transformers  of  electric  distributing  systems,  or  telephones 
for  the  pohce  or  fire  departments. 

For  purposes  of  public  convenience,  news  kiosks  of  an 
artistic  design  are  placed  in  suitable  locations.  There  may 
also  be  display  advertisements  on  the  news  kiosks. 

At  important  focal  points  are  placed  small  structures 
for  supplying  meteorological  information.  On  the  outside, 
weather  charts  and  forecasts  are  displayed,  and  thermome- 
ters, and  barometers  with  continuous  records  of  their  fluc- 
tuations are  provided.  Condensed  time-tables  of  arriving 
and  departing  trains  and  vessels  are  shown. 

An  additional  feature  found  in  such  structures  and 
throughout  European  cities,  of  great  convenience  to  the 
public,  and  one  which  would  prove  of  even  greater  conven- 
ience to  the  American  public  if  placed  in  similar  locations, 
is  the  electric  clock.  Not  only  on  the  meteorological  sta- 
tions are  such  clocks  placed,  but  also  at  every  few  blocks 
at  some  convenient  location.  Such  public  clocks  are  elec- 
trically controlled  and  operated  from  a  central  point.  They 
are  attached  to  lighting  poles,  news  and  subway  kiosks, 
advertising  columns  and  in  whatever  location  or  position 
they  will  prove  of  the  greatest  use. 

For  purposes  of  fire  and  police  protection,  the  German 
cities  have  an  elaborate  and  well-organized  signalling  system. 
Fire  alarm  boxes  are  placed  in  conspicuous  positions  on 
ornamental  posts,  which  carry  some  fifteen  feet  above  the 
sidewalk,  large  red  globes,  which  being  constantly  lighted, 
serve  to  indicate  the  locations  of  the  boxes. 

The  police  alarm  system,  which  is  excellently  worked 
out,  employs  as  one  of  its  principal  features,  a  signalling 
light  similar  to  the  fire  alarm  light,  except  that  it  is  green 
in  color  instead  of  red. 


82  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

For  police  alarm  purposes,  the  city  is  divided  into  beats, 
each  provided  with  several  of  the  green  signal  lamps  and 
alarm  boxes. 

Householders  are  provided  with  keys  to  the  alarm  boxes, 
and  when  a  policeman  is  required,  the  citizen  unlocks  the 
alarm  box,  which  causes  all  the  green  lights  on  the  beat  to 
show.  At  the  same  time,  the  citizen  talks  to  the  central 
station  over  the  telephone  in  the  box,  and  leaves  the  infor- 
mation as  to  where  the  policeman  is  wanted.  The  police- 
man on  seeing  a  green  light  burning  immediately  goes  to 
the  box  and  gets  his  instructions,  though  should  he  report 
to  the  box  from  which  the  citizen  is  calling,  he,  of  course, 
gets  the  information  at  first  hand. 

The  system  is  also  utilized  whenever  the  central  station 
has  any  instructions  to  convey  to  the  police  on  duty,  and 
it  may  readily  be  utilized  to  collect  a  large  force  of  men 
on  short  notice  at  any  desired  point. 

It  serves  in  addition  to  keep  tabs  on  the  policeman  on 
duty,  while  the  officer  himself  can,  in  the  same  manner, 
summon  assistance  when  necessary. 

In  addition  to  the  lighting  of  the  green  light,  a  bell 
is  also  rung,  which  is  of  special  use  during  the  day,  or  when 
the  officer  is  within  hearing  distance  but  does  not  have  his 
eye  on  the  green  light,  for  the  ear  is  always  on  guard  al- 
though the  eye  may  be  otherwise  employed. 

The  citizen's  key  cannot  be  withdrawn  from  the  box 
after  he  uses  it  until  an  inner  lock  of  the  box  is  opened  by 
the  policeman.  As  the  keys  are  numbered,  any  misuse  of 
them  is  readily  detected  and  properly  punished  and  the  key 
forfeited. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  the  system  is  that  a  smaller 
number  of  police  can  be  employed  and  quicker  service 
secured. 

The  same  methods  are  applied  to  the  fire  alarm  signal- 
ling, as  by  means  of  the  telephone  the  fire  department  can 
be  informed  of  the  exact  location  of  the  fire  and  thus  be 
saved  valuable  time  in  first  going  to  the  fire  alarm  box  and 
then  having  to  hunt  further  for  the  fire. 


STREETS  UP-TO-DATE  83 

The  various  foregoing  regulations  and  systems  are  only 
a  few  of  those  which  with  great  advantage  are  employed  to 
increase  the  safety  and  comfort  of  city  life.  There  is  no  reason 
why  any  of  them  should  not  be  adopted  in  any  city  or  town 
of  considerable  size. 

The  large  number  of  regulations  enforced  in  advanced 
European  cities  are  an  evidence  of  the  degree  of  civilization 
and  consideration  for  the  comforts  and  rights  of  others, 
attained  by  such  communities.  Only  negligence  and  a  spirit 
of  good-natured  indifference  prevents  American  cities  from 
adopting  the  more  drastic  regulations. 

In  New  York  City,  numerous  regulations  are  in  force,  and 
recently  a  very  important  improvement  has  been  adopted, 
which  is  now  being  carried  forward  on  many  streets,  that  is, 
the  widening  of  the  roadway  at  the  expense  of  the  sidewalks 
and  regaining  space  for  the  latter  by  the  removal  of  en- 
croachments of  buildings  on  the  sidewalks,  such  as  stoops, 
area  ways,  pillars,  porticos  and  the  like.  Although  bitterly 
opposed  for  several  years,  and  though  the  removal  of  such 
encroachments  has  marred  the  lower  sections  of  some  of  the 
buildings,  which  had  for  years  trespassed  on  the  street,  the 
plans  of  the  city  have  been  carried  out,  and  the  process  is 
constantly  going  on  on  all  streets  where  traffic  is  congested. 
Following  are  copies  of  official  papers  in  reference  to  the 
widening  of  one  of  the  leading  streets. 

OFFICE    OF   THE 

PRESIDENT   OF  THE   BOROUGH   OF  MANHATTAN 
CITY   OF  NEW  YORK 

April     ,19     . 
To  the  Owner  or  Tenant  of  the  Premises 
At  No 34th  Street: 

Dear  Sir  —  The  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment,  at  its 
meeting  of  March  9,  1911,  adopted  resolutions  providing: 

1.  That  the  roadway  of  Thirty-fourth  street,  between  Madison 
and  Eighth  avenues,  be  increased  from  forty  to  fifty-three  feet; 

2.  That  the  width  of  the  sidewalks  be  correspondingly  reduced 
from  thirty  to  twenty-three  and  one-half  feet;    and 


84  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

3.  That  owners  of  abutting  property  be  required  to  remove  all 
encroachments  or  encumbrances  between  levels  ten  feet  above  the 
curb  grade  and  of  sufficient  depth  below  said  grade  to  provide  the 
proper  support  for  the  street  and  sidewalk  surfaces,  and  extending 
beyond  the  building  line  farther  than  allowed  by  the  order  of  the 
Superintendent  of  Buildings  of  January  3,  1911. 

This  order  affects  encroachments  of  every  description,  including 
stoops,  steps,  courtyards,  areas,  platforms,  porches,  fences,  raiUngs, 
showcases,  bay  windows  and  ornamental  entrances.  Where  areas 
are  removed,  the  level  of  the  sidewalk  must  be  restored. 

In  pursuance  of  the  direction  of  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Appor- 
tionment, I  am  preparing  to  proceed  with  the  widening  of  the  roadway, 
and,  in  order  to  give  the  sidewalks  the  width  prescribed,  will  require 
that  all  encroachments  or  encumbrances  extending  beyond  the  limits 
mentioned  be  removed  at  the  earliest  moment,  so  that  the  work  may 
proceed  during  the  summer  season.  Encroachments  that  are  not  so 
far  removed  as  to  allow  work  to  commence  by  June  1  will  be  removed 
by  the  City  and  the  expense  thereof  charged  as  a  lien.upon  the  property 
affected. 

A  complete  copy  of  the  resolutions  in  question  is  attached,  together 
with  the  order  of 

Yours  very  respectfully, 

George  McAneny, 
President  of  the  Borough  of  Manhattan. 

Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment 
City  of  New  York 

Removal  of  Encroachments  on,  and  Changing  the  Roadway  and  Side- 
walk Widths  of  Thirty-fourth  Street,  between  Eighth  and  Madison 
Avenues,  Borough  of  Manhattan. 

Resolved,  That  all  ordinances,  resolutions,  permits  or  licenses 
heretofore  adopted,  issued  or  granted  by  The  City  of  New  York,  or 
by  any  board,  body,  council  or  officer  thereof,  or  by  any  department, 
division,  bureau  or  officer  thereof,  permitting,  licensing  or  allowing 
any  stoop,  steps,  courtyard,  area,  platform,  porch,  fence,  railing, 
showcase,  bay  window,  ornamental  entrance,  or  any  other  projection 
or  encroachment  of  whatsoever  kind  or  description  on  Thirty-fourth 
street  between  the  easterly  line  of  Eighth  avenue  and  the  westerly  line 
of  Madison  avenue,  between  levels  ten  (10)  feet  above  the  curb  grade 
and  a  sufficient  depth  below  said  grade  to  provide  proper  support  for 
the  street  and  walk  surfaces  be  and  they  are  hereby  in  all  respects 
repealed,  cancelled  and  revoked;   and  be  it  further 


TWENTY    THIRD    STHi:i:r,    M:\V    YORK 


BEFORE    AND    AFTI;H    STREET    WIDENING    AND    REMOVAL    OF    EN- 
CROACHMENTS   FROM    SIDEWALKS,    NEW    YORK    CITY 


BARBAROSSA    PLAZA    AND    HOHENSTAUFEN,    RING,    COLOGNE 


MAXIMILL\N    STREliT,    MUNICH 
ARBOREAL    STREET    EMBELLISHMENT 


STREETS  UP-TO-DATE  85 

Resolved,  That  the  widths  of  the  roadway  and  sidewalks  on  Thirty- 
fourth  street.  Borough  of  Manhattan,  between  Eighth  avenue  and 
Madison  avenue,  be,  and  they  hereby  are  established  as  follows: 

The  width  of  said  roadway  shall  be  fifty-three  feet; 

The  width  of  said  sidewalks  shall  be  twenty-three  and  one-half 
feet;    and  be  it  further 

Resolved,  That  this  resolution  shall  not  be  deemed  to  in  any  way 
alter,  amend  or  affect  a  certain  order  issued  by  the  Superintendent 
of  Buildings  for  the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  and  approved  by  the 
President  of  the  Borough  under  date  of  January  3,  1911,  providing 
for  certain  ornamental  projections  as  therein  specified;  and  be  it  further 

Resolved,  That  the  President  of  the  Borough  of  Manhattan  be 
and  he  is  hereby  directed  to  construct  said  roadway  to  the  said  width 
of  fifty-three  feet,  and  the  said  sidewalks  to  the  said  width  of  twenty- 
three  and  one-half  feet  from  the  curb  line,  in  accordance  with  the 
foregoing  resolutions,  except  where  there  are  existing  encroachments 
or  encumbrances  which  do  not  extend  outward  from  the  building  line 
for  distances  greater  than  those  given  by  the  above  mentioned  notice 
of  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings,  then  said  sidewalks  to  be  con- 
structed up  to  said  encroachments  or  encumbrances;  and  where  en- 
croachments or  encumbrances  extend  for  greater  distances  than  those 
specified  from  the  building  or  house  line,  then  the  said  Borough 
President  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  remove  or  cause  to  be 
removed  all  that  portion  or  portions  of  said  encroachments  or  encum- 
brances less  than  ten  feet  above  the  curb  grade  back  to  the  distances 
specified;  and  he  is  further  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  remove 
or  cause  to  be  removed  all  portions  of  vaults  which  may  be  found  to 
exist  below  the  elevation  of  the  curb  and  extending  beyond  the  new 
curb  line,  as  above  established,  which  are  not  altered  by  the  occu- 
pants of  said  vaults,  or  the  owners  of  the  adjoining  property,  so  as 
to  make  possible  the  physical  change  in  roadway  and  sidewalk  widths 
in  conformity  with  the  requirements  of  this  resolution,  and  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  Borough  President. 

I  hereby  certify  that  the  foregoing  is  a  true  copy  of  a  resolution 
adopted  by  the  Board  of  Estimate  and  Apportionment  at  a  meeting 
of  said  Board  held  on  March  9,  1911. 

(Signed) 


Assistant  Secretary. 

Notice  is  Hereby  Given  that  on  and  after  this  date  no  building 
plans  not  already  on  file  in  this  department,  or  in  the  Tenement  House 
Department,  will  be  approved  by  the  Bureau  of  Buildings  for  the 
Borough  of  Manhattan  which  provide  for  an  encroachment  by  any 


86  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

part  of  the  building  beyond  the  building  or  lot  line  at  any  point  less 
than  ten  feet  above  the  curb  grade,  except  that 

(a)  Non-supporting  columns  or  pilasters,  including  their 
mouldings  and  bases,  may  project  not  more  than  two  and 
one-half  (2|)  per  cent,  of  the  width  of  the  street,  and  in  no 
case  more  than  two  (2)  feet  beyond  the  building  line. 

(b)  Steps  leading  up  or  down  at  entrances,  and  included 
between  ornamental  columns,  pilasters  or  check  pieces  at 
least  three  (3)  feet  high,  at  the  sides  of  such  entrances,  pro- 
vided they  do  not  exceed,  together  or  separately,  one-fifth 
(1-5)  of  the  width  of  the  lot,  may  project  not  more  than 
two  and  one-half  (21)  per  cent,  of  the  width  of  the  street, 
and  in  no  case  more  than  eighteen  (18)  inches  beyond  the 
building  hne. 

(c)  Mouldings  or  ornamentations  of  a  decorative  char- 
acter, and  base  courses,  including  the  water-table,  not  ex- 
ceeding five  (5)  feet  in  height  above  the  curb  grade,  may 
project  not  more  than  one  and  one-fourth  (1|)  per  cent, 
of  the  width  of  the  street,  and  in  no  case  more  than  ten 
(10)  inches  beyond  the  building  line. 

(d)  Rustications  may  project  not  more  than  four  (4) 
inches  beyond  the  building  line. 

Marquises  or  awnings,  supported  wholly  from  the  building,  will 
be  permitted  where  they  do  not  extend  more  than  two  and  one-half 
(2^)  feet  on  either  side  of  an  entrance,  provided  they  are  constructed 
of  iron  and  glass  or  other  incombustible  material,  and  are  properly 
drained. 
Dated 


Superintendent  of  Buildings  for  the  Borough  of  Manhattan. 
Approved : 


President  of  the  Borough  of  Manhattan. 


CHAPTER  VII 

WATERWAYS  AND  HARBOR  IMPROVEMENTS 

Harbor    Improvements;     Terminal    Facilities;     Water    Gates; 

Canal  Transportation 

Practically  every  large  city  in  the  world  is  a  city  of 
important  waterways.  Ordinarily  viewed  as  an  adjunct  to 
a  city's  commerce,  its  waterways,  however,  will  be  found 
in  almost  every  case,  if  not  the  chief  reason  for  its  existence, 
to  be  a  factor  of  the  first  importance  in  its  progress. 

Cities  which  neglect  their  waterways  fall  behind  in 
growth  and  prestige,  and  those  that  improve  their  harbor 
facilities  forge  ahead,  in  many  instances,  with  wonderful 
strides. 

The  question  of  harbor  improvements  is  thus  one  of  the 
greatest  importance,  and  it  deserves  the  most  careful  con- 
sideration of  those  in  authority  and  the  support  of  all 
classes  of  citizens.  Cities  having  great  natural  advantages 
must  keep  their  equipment  up-to-date,  while  cities  ^with 
limited  natural  facilities  may  by  well-designed  improve- 
ments, lift  themselves  into  positions  of  the  first  consequence, 
as  many  European  cities  have  done  in  recent  years,  coming 
into  successful  competition  with  existing  ports. 

The  port  of  Hamburg,  which  is  65  miles  from  the  sea, 
is  almost  entirely  a  made  port.  For  35  miles  the  river 
Elbe  has  had  to  be  dredged.  Sixty  years  ago  the  channel 
of  the  Elbe  had  a  depth  of  15  feet  at  high  tide,  to-day  it  is 
37  feet  and  by  continuous  dredging  it  will  have  a  depth  of 
at  least  40  feet.  The  harbor  when  it  is  reached  is  a  great 
sliceway  of  piers,  basins  and  channels,  dredged  out  of  the 
lowlands,  but  affording  unlimited  docking  facilities.  The 
harbor,  which  in  convenience  and  equipment  is  the  equal, 
if  not  the  superior  of  any  in  the  world,  is  wholly  the  result 


88  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

of  German  progress  and  energy.  Some  $100,000,000  has 
been  spent  in  the  harbor  developments  and  at  present  it  is 
spending  $50,000,000  more. 

The  example  of  Hamburg  is  one  that  should  inspire 
other  cities  to  improve  their  facilities  and  increase  their 
traffic. 

Another  example  is  found  in  Montreal,  which  though 
a  thousand  miles  from  the  sea,  has  become  the  greatest 
summer  port  of  the  north,  $40,000,000  having  been  spent, 
and  its  commerce  increasing  from  $25,000,000  a  year  to 
$71,000,000  a  year  within  fifteen  years. 

In  making  harbor  improvements,  the  true  purposes  and 
reasons  for  harbors  should  be  kept  in  view,  and  the  improve- 
ments planned  to  be  successful  both  from  an  engineering 
and  a  commercial  point  of  view. 

The  principal  purpose  of  a  harbor  is  to  furnish  a  means 
of  transference  of  freight  between  inland  and  seagoing 
carriers. 

The  harbor  which  affords  the  cheapest  and  most  expedi- 
tious means  of  transference  will  attract  the  greatest  patron- 
age, provided  its  location  is  not  such  as  to  be  a  handicap. 
Vessels  do  not  seek  so  much  a  spacious  harbor  as  they  do 
one  in  which  they  may  quickly  discharge  their  cargoes  and 
reload,  at  small  expense,  so  that  a  city,  by  the  erection  of  a 
breakwater,  the  dredging  of  a  creek  or  river  and  the  con- 
struction of  modern  docks  laid  with  railroad  tracks,  per- 
mitting cars  to  be  brought  alongside  the  vessels,  and  fitted 
with  the  latest  facilities  and  mechanisms  for  loading  and 
unloading,  will  be  in  a  more  advantageous  position  than  a 
city  in  which  the  natural  harbor  is  better  but  in  which 
modern  systems  have  not  been  installed. 

The  commerce  of  an  inland  city  is  composed  of  freight 
handled  by  inland  carriers,  such  as  railroads,  river  steamers, 
canal  boats  and  other  forms  of  transportation,  and  coast- 
wise and  overseas  freight,  and  in  addition,  the  products  of 
its  own  factories. 

The  arriving  freight  is  for  four  principal  purposes:  im- 
mediate transshipment,  storage  for  later  shipment,  material 


HARBOR    AT    Ni;i  SS    ON    THE    RHINE 
Five  electric  operated  semi-pnrtahle  cranes  for  loading  and  unloading  river  boats 


PART    OF    EAST    HARBOR    AT    I- RANKFORT-ON'-THE-xMAIN 

Equipped  with  twenty-four  stationary  loading  bridges,  twenty-one  electric  operated 

cranes  and  seven  traveling  loading  bridges 


HARBOR    AT    HAMBURG 


HARBOR    AT    BREMEN 
Electric  operated  traveling  cranes  for  loading  anil  unloading  sea-going  vessels 


HARBOR   IMPROVEMENTS  89 

for  the  city's  manufactures,  or  goods  for  consumption  in  the 
city  itself.  The  facilities  of  the  city  should,  therefore,  be 
planned  so  that  the  freight  for  each  of  such  purposes  is 
handled  in  a  different  manner.  Freight  intended  for  im- 
mediate transshipment  from  cars  to  vessels,  or  vice  versa, 
should  be  handled  on  piers  laid  with  railroad  tracks,  equipped 
with  loading  and  unloading  appliances,  so  that  the  cargoes 
may  be  transferred  with  as  little  intervention  of  labor  as 
possible,  and  with  the  greatest  speed. 

Such  piers  need  not  be  placed  in  close  proximity  to  the 
business  districts  of  the  city,  as  any  point  in  the  harbor  to 
which  railroad  tracks  may  be  conveniently  run,  will  answer 
the  purpose.  A  ship  receiving  part  of  its  cargo  from  rail- 
road cars  may  also,  at  the  same  time,  take  on  freight 
from  a  canal  boat,  and  thus  the  transshipping  piers  had  best 
be  placed  near  canal  and  railroad  freight  terminals. 

Freight  intended  to  be  stored  in  the  city  for  future 
shipment,  should  be  placed  in  elevators  or  storage  ware- 
houses accessible  to  both  rail  and  water  transportation,  but 
similarly  away  from  the  business  districts  of  the  city.  Par- 
ticular care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  the  placing  of  ter- 
minals and  storage  warehouses  in  such  manner  that  freight 
has  to  be  handled  by  being  trucked  across  the  city. 

Freight  intended  as  material  for  manufacture  in  the 
factories  of  the  city,  should,  whenever  possible,  be  delivered 
by  rail  or  water  direct,  while  finished  products  should  be 
removed  in  the  same  manner.  The  advantages  of  rail  con- 
nections are  appreciated  by  manufacturers,  who  accordingly 
have  a  spur  or  switch  run  into  their  factories  wherever 
possible,  but  the  value  of  canals  is  not  so  well  understood. 

A  system  of  canals  in  a  manufacturing  district  proves 
of  the  greatest  utility,  especially  for  products  of  a  bulky 
nature. 

Freight  intended  for  consumption  in  the  city  itself 
should  be  arranged  for  delivery  to  a  number  of  points,  in 
the  most  direct  manner  possible. 

The  principle  to  be  followed  in  handling  the  freight  of 
a  city  is  to  carry  it  as  nearly  as  can  be  to  its  final  destina- 


90  CITY   PLANNING  AND    MAINTENANCE 

tion  in  its  original  carrier  without  breaking  bulk,  and  with 
the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  labor.  The  use  of  the 
truck,  a  most  unsatisfactory  and  expensive  method  of  trans- 
portation, should  be  avoided  or  minimized. 

In  the  handling  of  passenger  traffic  to  and  from  vessels, 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  railroad  depots  adjoining  the 
piers,  especially  for  passengers  not  intending  to  make  the 
city  their  destination.  In  this  way,  the  city  streets  are 
freed  of  a  great  volume  of  transportation  of  no  useful 
purpose,  and  the  tune  of  the  passengers  is  saved.  In 
Hamburg  and  Bremen  not  over  half  an  hour  is  spent  in 
transferring  passengers  and  baggage  from  vessel  to  cars, 
including  customs  inspections. 

Cities  on  rivers  at  some  distance  from  the  sea  may 
increase  their  commerce  greatly  by  improving  their  harbor 
facilities  in  the  manner  adopted  by  Hamburg,  while  inland 
cities  on  rivers  have  an  almost  equal  opportunity.  Frank- 
fort on  the  river  Main,  borrowed  $18,000,000  of  which 
$6,000,000  was  spent  in  acquiring  lands  and  $12,000,000  in 
making  improvements.  An  area  of  110  acres  was  excavated, 
and  a  river  port  with  the  latest  equipment  constructed.  The 
city  will,  eventually,  however,  not  only  not  be  put  to  any 
expense,  but  will  realize  a  direct  profit  from  its  operations, 
since  720  acres  have  been  reserved  as  sites  for  factories. 
The  river  traffic  encouraged  by  the  harbor  improvements 
will  serve  to  develop  new  industries  and  the  city  will  thus 
indirectly  benefit  generally  while  directly  disposing  of  its 
factory  sites  at  a  figure  over  the  whole  cost  of  the  improve- 
ments.    The  wisdom  of  such  a  course  is  obvious. 

Diisseldorf  on  the  Rhine  has  carried  out  improvements 
and  has  developed  an  enormous  river  traffic,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  traffic  of  St.  Louis  has  decreased  to  almost 
nothing. 

Duisburg  on  the  Ruhr  has  also  made  very  important 
harbor  improvements  and  its  trade  and  population  have 
increased  largely  on  that  account. 

Practically  every  city  of  any  size  located  on  a  river  is 
built  on  both  sides  of  the  stream,  though  as  a  rule  the  por- 


HARBOR   IMPROVEMENTS  91 

tion  on  one  side  predominates,  while  the  portion  on  the  other 
side  will  often  bear  another  name.  Unless,  however,  the 
river  is  of  unusual  width,  the  two  portions  should  be  treated 
as  a  unit  in  the  development  of  their  city  plan,  and  certain 
structures  only  should  be  permitted  on  one  side  or  the  other 
of  the  river.  A  city  of  a  most  interesting  character  can 
thus  be  created,  as  the  river  adds  to  the  picturesqueness  and 
variety  of  a  city's  plan,  beside  setting  limits  from  which 
the  plan  may  be  developed. 

Cities  which  are  seaports  offer  similar  opportunities  for 
the  working  out  of  interesting  features,  and  the  sea  wall 
may  be  varied  with  parks,  docks,  terminals,  gateways  and 
the  like. 

Water  approaches  with  sea  gates  or  landing  piers  may 
often  with  advantage  be  made  an  integral  part  of  a  city's 
plan,  with  a  broad  avenue  or  boulevard  leading  to  the  civic 
center,  and  the  most  prominent  building  of  the  center  facing 
or  in  the  vista  of  such  an  avenue. 

Sea  gates  should  be  made  of  a  monumental  character, 
and  sea  walls  and  other  structures  should  be  of  a  permanent 
and  well-designed  character.  Piers  facing  streets  should  be 
treated  in  the  proper  architectural  spirit,  and  in  construc- 
tion should  be  of  a  fire-proof  nature.  It  is  usually  desirable 
to  run  boulevards  parallel  to  the  water  fronts,  with  a  narrow 
park  along  the  whole  front,  thus  providing  a  convenient 
place  for  recreation  along  the  water,  usually  the  most  agree- 
able part  of  the  city,  but  too  often  taken  up  for  business 
purposes. 

Recreation  piers  should  also  be  built  in  adequate  num- 
bers, and  reached  through  the  riverside  parks.  Inland 
cities  in  the  United  States,  on  rivers,  have  in  almost  all 
cases  surrendered  their  riverside  park  sites  to  business  pur- 
poses, the  residential  districts  being  driven  back  into  the 
land  districts. 

Water  fronts  should  be  reserved  for  park  purposes 
instead  of  being  taken  up  by  railroad  tracks,  storage  yards 
and  other  accumulations,  for  since  railroad  haulage  in  cities 
is  to-day  largely  by  electric  locomotives,   the  railroads,  if 


92  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

they  must  run  along  the  water  front,  may  be  put  in  tunnels, 
which  will  leave  the  space  for  parks. 

In  New  York  for  example,  it  has  been  proposed  to  cover 
the  tracks  of  the  railroad  running  along  the  river's  edge  at 
Riverside  Drive.  As  the  Drive  is  at  a  considerable  height 
above  the  Hudson,  with  a  narrow  park  running  down  to  the 
tracks,  it  would  be  feasible  to  roof  the  tracks  over,  leaving 
windows  on  the  water  side,  and  placing  a  promenade  over 
them.  This  park  space  could  then  be  extended  many  feet 
out  into  the  river,  and  would  be  an  improvement  of  great 
value  obtained  at  small  expense. 

Harbor  facilities  need  not  be  interfered  with  by  the  use 
of  water  fronts  for  parks,  as  with  a  proper  arrangement 
space  may  always  be  found  both  for  the  parks  and  for  the 
commercial  uses  of  the  water. 

Without  exception  German  cities  so  placed  as  to  be  able 
to  develop  their  harbor  facilities  have  done  so,  and  German 
maritime  commerce  has  thus  received  the  greatest  impetus. 
The  merchant  marine  tonnage  increased  from  1875  to  1909, 
159.7  per  cent,  a  period  during  which  the  American  mer- 
chant marine  lost  ground. 

Germany  has  190  harbors  on  the  North  Sea  and  60 
harbors  on  the  Baltic,  and  the  number  of  sea-going  ships  of 
over  10,000  tons  hailing  from  sixteen  of  the  principal  ports, 
and  their  gross  registered  tonnage  was  4,207,970  on  January 
1,  1909. 

In  addition  to  the  harbor  of  Hamburg,  two  other  ports 
among  the  greatest  on  the  continent,  those  of  Antwerp  and 
Rotterdam,  are  largely  of  an  artificial  nature.  Indeed,  the 
city  of  Rotterdam,  though  very  ancient,  never  became  of 
any  consequence  until  it  developed  its  harbor. 

The  importance  of  harbor  improvement  is  realized  in 
England  also,  where  a  number  of  ports  have  undertaken 
extensive  improvements,  London,  however,  remaining  con- 
tent with  existing  conditions  and  falling  behind  in  the  march 
of  progress. 

Liverpool  has  spent  $200,000,000,  Manchester  and  New- 
castle $85,000,000  and   Glasgow  $44,000,000.      Manchester 


DOCKS    FOR    NORTH    SliA    TRAFFIC,    HAMBURG 


CHELSEA    DOCKS,    NEW    YORK 


HARBOR  IMPROVEMENTS  93 

determined  to  free  herself  of  Liverpool  tolls  and  built  a 
canal  35^  miles  in  length,  and  from  290  to  370  feet  wide  at 
the  top,  120  to  170  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  26  feet 
deep,  which  furnishes  an  outlet  to  the  sea,  completed  in 
1893,  that  adds  enormously  to  the  city's  trade  and 
commerce. 

American  cities  in  many  cases  are  alive  to  the  benefits 
of  harbor  improvements.  The  city  of  New  York,  although 
having  a  harbor  of  great  natural  advantages,  is  constantly 
expending  large  sums  for  its  improvement.  Its  piers  and 
docks  are  city  property,  and  in  co-operation  with  the  Federal 
Government  it  is  planning  great  additional  facilities  in 
Jamaica  Bay,  in  the  southern  part  of  Brooklyn,  a  swampy 
overflowed  section  which  is  to  be  dredged  and  converted  into 
an  immense  freight  harbor.  The  Government  will  spend 
some  17,430,000  on  the  fairway  entrance  from  the  sea,  and 
the  city  will  ultimately  spend  170,000,000  on  the  inside 
improvements. 

An  interesting  feature  of  New  York's  harbor  facilities 
is  seen  in  the  Bush  Terminal  System.  This  consists  of 
some  seven  piers,  each  1,400  feet  in  length,  through  which 
are  laid  railroad  tracks.  Tracks  also  lead  from  the  piers 
into  a  series  of  large  buildings  adjoining,  which  have  as 
tenants  numerous  manufacturers,  who  are  thus  saved  the 
expense  and  delay  of  street  transportation  of  their  products, 
as  they  receive  their  raw  material  and  ship  their  products 
directly  by  rail  or  water  from  their  own  floors.  The  success 
of  the  system  has  been  so  great  that  it  is  proposed  that  the 
city  buy  it  and  largely  extend  it. 

As  has  been  indicated,  in  harbor  improvements  one  of 
the  chief  features  is  to  arrange  the  docks  so  that  railroad 
cars  may  be  run  alongside  the  vessels  and  freight  be  quickly 
exchanged. 

This  is  best  accomplished  by  modern  forms  of  cranes, 
and  great  economies  are  effected  when  such  apparatus  is 
properly  designed.  In  certain  harbors,  the  engineering 
features  are  such  that  vessels  may  be  loaded  from  cars  on 
two  or  three  tracks,  simultaneously,  and  two  to  three  cranes 


94  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

may  take  cargo  from  one  hatchway  without  interfering  with 
each  other.  The  very  latest  and  best  machinery,  however, 
should  be  adopted,  as  great  advances  have  recently  been 
made  in  this  field,  and  the  difference  between  new  equip- 
ment and  out-of-date  equipment  will  prove  of  the  greatest 
importance  to  the  commerce  of  the  port. 

Hamburg,  where  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  latest 
developments  in  harbor  engineering,  has  thus  a  great  ad- 
vantage over  New  York,  where  very  few  piers  are  laid  with 
railroad  tracks,  and  where  not  a  single  pier  is  equipped  with 
loading  and  unloading  cranes,  the  truckman  is  found  in  all 
his  glory,  his  charges  for  small  lots  equalling  in  many  cases 
the  cost  of  long  railroad  freight  hauls. 

Hamburg  in  1911  possessed  130,000  lineal  feet  of  quays  for 
ocean  liners,  more  than  5,000,000  square  feet  of  sheds  and  805 
cranes  for  loading  and  unloading  ocean  and  river  vessels. 

The  docks  of  Hamburg  harbor  vary  in  length  from  2,500 
to  3,500  feet  and  on  both  sides  of  the  piers  are  run  travelling 
cranes.  There  is  at  least  one  crane  for  every  65  feet  of  pier; 
they  are  all  electric  operated.  Some  five  or  six  ocean-going 
steamers  can  lay  alongside  each  of  such  docks.  The  fairway 
between  the  docks  is  some  750  feet  in  width,  so  that  between 
the  rows  of  ships  on  either  side  at  the  docks,  a  row  may  be 
made  fast  to  the  mooring  posts  in  the  middle  of  the  fairway, 
discharging  cargoes  into  lighters,  for  which  purpose  floating 
cranes  are  at  hand.  One  of  the  principal  piers  in  Hamburg 
has  a  length  of  some  5,000  feet,  and  it  will  thus  be  seen 
what  modern  engineering  has  accomplished  in  harbor  im- 
provements, since  the  situation  at  the  outset  was  highly 
unfavorable. 

In  1912  the  Port  of  Hamburg  cleared  in  imports  and 
exports  25,000,000  tons  valued  at  over  $2,000,000,000.  The 
tonnage  was  2,000,000  in  excess  of  1911. 

The  three  Ports  of  London  cleared  in  exports  and  imports 
$150,000,000  less  than  Hamburg. 

One  of  the  reasons  for  Hamburg's  predominance  is  that 
it  is  a  free  port,  goods  being  warehoused  without  customs 
duties  being  levied. 


HARBOR   IMPROVEMENTS 


95 


Fig.  23.  plan  of  one  of  the  industrial  harbors  of  frankfort 

on  the  main. 
Commerce,  Industry  and  Public  Welfare  have  been  greatly  stimulated  since  the  build- 
ing of  these  artificial  Inland  Harbors. 


96  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

New  York  would  greatly  benefit  by  being  similarly  a  free 
port. 

If  American  cities  having  harbors  do  not  want  to  make 
radical  changes  at  the  end  of  another  ten  years,  it  goes  with- 
out saying  that  comprehensive  systems  must  now  be  laid 
out  to  accommodate  the  traffic  that  the  future  will  surely 
bring. 

One  American  city  which  has  profited  greatly  by  harbor 
improvements  is  Buffalo,  which  had,  in  fact,  no  harbor  at  all, 
but  which,  by  the  erection  of  a  sea  wall,  has  remedied  its 
natural  disadvantages  and  is  now  in  point  of  tonnage  the 
tenth  port  of  the  world. 

Boston,  on  the  other  hand,  with  a  splendid  natural  har- 
bor, has  failed  to  keep  its  facilities  up-to-date  and  the  in- 
crease in  the  size  of  vessels  has  been  such  that  many  cannot 
longer  enter  the  port,  a  condition  which  would  not  have 
arisen  had  Boston  deepened  her  channels  as  New  York  has 
done. 

Boston  has  consequently  lost  heavily  to  other  ports, 
but  the  lesson  is  now  being  learned,  as  the  legislature  of  the 
state  recently  appropriated  $12,000,000  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  the  harbor. 

Baltimore,  since  the  fire,  has  spent  $6,500,000  on  docks 
and  piers,  to  retain  her  maritime  trade. 

The  Pacific  coast  ports  are  showing  the  greatest  activity 
in  the  development  of  their  harbor  facilities.  Los  Angeles, 
by  a  consolidation  with  Wilmington  and  San  Pedro,  will  have 
a  shore  front  22J-2  rniles  long.  The  city  has  spent  13,000,000 
and  the  three  boroughs  in  the  next  ten  years  will  spend 
11,000,000  a  year  on  harbor  improvements.  Large  improve- 
ments are  also  being  made  at  Seattle  and  Portland,  Oakland, 
San  Diego  and  San  Francisco.  The  State  of  California  will 
spend  $10,000,000  on  the  extension  of  the  state-owned  docks 
at  San  Francisco,  and  Oakland  is  spending  $3,500,000  on 
strictly  municipal  docks.  The  state  will  also  spend  $1,500,- 
000  for  state-owned  docks  at  San  Diego. 

A  considerable  part  of  this  activity  is  due  to  the  ap- 
proaching opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  which  will  prove  an 


WATERFRONT    PROMENADE,    KIEL 

Vantage  point  from  which  Kaiser  Wilhelrn  ineii'x  the  l>attleshifi  maneuDers 

The   Imperial    Yacht   C.hih  Building   in   the  foreground 


THE    JUNGFEKNSTIE(;,    HAMBURG 
Picturesque  water-front  sguare  and  landing  platform 


HARBOR   IMPROVEMENTS  97 

enormous  factor  in  the  development  of  the  Western  states. 
Indeed  its  effect  on  the  commerce  of  the  whole  country  will 
prove  highly  stimulating,  while  foreign  countries,  even  more 
than  the  United  States,  foresee  its  advantages.  The  Ham- 
burg-American line  is  building  a  great  number  of  vessels 
particularly  adapted  for  the  canal  trade. 

New  York  will  also  share  in  the  benefits  of  the  opening 
of  the  canal,  since  the  distance  to  the  Pacific  ports  will  be  so 
greatly  reduced.  Honolulu  will  be  but  4,465  miles,  Yoko- 
hama, 10,046  and  Hong  Kong,  11,607  miles. 

The  Panama  Canal  will  undoubtedly  prove  the  greatest 
boon  to  commerce  of  any  artificial  waterway  ever  constructed 
or  ever  possible  of  construction. 

Another  work  of  great  importance  being  undertaken  is  the 
seaboard  canal,  a  series  of  waterways  connecting  landlocked 
water  areas  along  the  Atlantic,  which,  when  finished,  will 
enable  barges  to  be  towed  from  Boston  to  the  Gulf  without 
going  out  into  the  sea,  or  exposure  to  storms. 

It  is  the  duty  of  all  American  cities  located  on  water- 
ways, to  use  every  effort  to  increase  their  harbor  facilities, 
for  water  transportation,  owing  to  its  cheapness,  enables 
merchants  to  sell  goods  at  lower  prices  and  at  greater  profit, 
and  stimulates  every  line  of  industry. 

It  is  far  better  for  a  country  to  have  a  large  number  of 
thriving  maritime  cities,  than  to  have  its  whole  commerce 
handled  by  a  few  large  ports.  With  fair  railroad  rates, 
which  are  now  assured  by  the  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission, and  with  the  opening  of  the  canal,  American  cities 
which  are  seaports  should  experience  a  great  increase  in 
prosperity.  They  should  be  prepared  to  take  every  ad- 
vantage of  it  by  proper  harbor  facilities. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

BRIDGES  AND  BRIDGE  APPROACHES 

Esthetic  Features  —  Co-operation  of  Engineer  and  Architect  — 
Bridge  Approaches  —  Various  Types  of  Bridges 

Of  all  the  structures  erected,  the  bridge  is  possessed  of 
the  greatest  individuality,  unity  and  feeling.  It  is  at  once 
an  inspiration  and  a  utility,  and  it  marks  as  no  other  struc- 
ture does  the  progress  of  man  from  barbarism  to  civilization. 
It  is  one  of  his  greatest  triumphs  over  nature's  obstacles,  for 
it  is  not  only  an  evidence  of  his  ability  to  merely  construct, 
that  is  to  place  one  stone  upon  another,  but  of  his  ability 
to  think  and  so  to  utilize  the  forces  of  nature  as  to  cause 
one  stone  to  stand  upon  another  with  nothing  directly 
beneath. 

A  building  can  never  produce  the  sense  of  unity  of  the 
bridge  and  thus  can  never  inspire  as  the  bridge  does,  because 
while  portions  of  a  building  may  be  eliminated  and  still  leave 
it  a  building,  the  elimination  of  a  portion  of  a  bridge  means 
its  destruction  for  the  purposes  for  which  it  is  erected. 

The  bridge  occupies  thus  a  unique  position  among  the 
structures  of  man,  approached  only  by  the  dam,  to  which, 
however,  it  is  far  superior,  since  the  dam  always  lacks  in  the 
sense  of  self-evident  security  which  the  bridge  imparts. 

Not  only  is  the  bridge  unique  in  its  position  among  struc- 
tures, but  it  is  the  largest  single  structure  erected  by  man  and 
the  most  costly.  It  is  also  highly  important  in  point  of 
numbers  and  in  the  investment  involved.  There  are  for 
example  some  80,000  metal  bridges  in  the  United  States  or 
one  for  every  three  miles  of  railroad,  and  they  aggregate  1,400 
miles  in  length,  representing  an  investment  of  3800,000,000, 
or  several  times  the  cost  of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  sub- 
ject  of  bridges  is  therefore   one  which  demands  the  most 


BRIDGES   AND   BRIDGE  APPROACHES  99 

careful  attention  of  all  who  have  to  deal  with  it.  It  is  not  a 
subject  which  should  be  reserved  to  the  officials  and  en- 
gineers in  charge,  but  is  one  in  which  the  public  should  take 
an  active  and  decisive  interest.  When  a  bridge  of  any  con- 
sequence is  to  be  erected  the  designs  should  be  open  to  public 
inspection,  and  all  objections  and  suggestions  should  be  dealt 
with  in  advance. 

All  phases  of  the  question  should  be  considered:  the 
aesthetic  appearance  of  the  bridge,  its  engineering  features, 
its  location,  capacity,  future  uses,  cost,  operation  costs, 
durability,  materials  and  efTect  on  the  city's  growth,  and 
only  after  a  thorough  consideration  of  every  feature  should 
its  construction  be  proceeded  with. 

The  pleasing  psychological  and  aesthetic  effects  of  bridges 
have  been  recognized  since  the  earliest  times,  but  great 
bridges  are  a  result  of  modern  invention,  being  dependent 
upon  the  cheap  production  of  steel  for  their  evolution,  since 
stone  bridges  have  never  been  constructed  in  anything  like 
the  great  spans  of  the  modern  steel  bridges.  The  railroad, 
too,  has  greatly  increased  the  necessity  for  bridges,  so  that 
except  for  the  comparatively  small  stone  bridges  of  ancient 
and  mediaeval  times,  the  principles  of  which  were  early 
mastered,  bridge  building  is  a  modern  science. 

The  success  achieved  has  been  little  less  than  stupendous 
in  a  material  and  engineering  sense,  for  enormous  structures 
have  been  erected  which  meet  the  demands  of  traffic  and  the 
various  conditions  which  were  presented. 

In  two  respects,  however,  the  modern  bridge  is  for  the 
most  part  a  great  failure.  It  is  neither  artistic  nor  will  it 
have  the  long  life  of  the  ancient  bridges.  The  Romans  two 
thousand  years  ago  built  bridges  which  are  in  use  to-day,  but 
no  modern  metal  bridge  even  with  the  most  careful  attention 
can  be  expected  to  last  even  a  small  part  of  such  a  period. 
Even  if  protected  from  the  action  of  the  elements,  the  steel 
which  might  then  be  reasonably  expected  to  last  indefinitely 
will  be  subject  to  crystallization  from  the  effects  of  vibration. 
Thus  all  our  steel  bridges  are  temporary  structures.  This, 
however  will  in  the  most  cases  prove  a  matter  of  congratu- 


100  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

lation,  as  when  they  pass  away,  they  will  be  undoubtedly 
replaced  by  more  artistic  structures.  Only  our  stone  bridges, 
however,  may  be  expected  to  endure  into  the  eras  of  new 
races,  if  such  are  to  succeed  us. 

But  the  more  striking  defect  in  our  bridge  construction  is 
the  lack  of  artistic  talent  shown  in  their  design.  For  the 
most  part  they  are  like  skyscrapers,  masterpieces  of  ugliness 
and  purely  utilitarian  in  every  sense.  In  the  pressure  to  get 
enough  bridges  built  to  accommodate  the  traffic,  they  have 
been  built  with  little  or  no  sense  of  aesthetic  effect,  and  are 
accordingly  without  beauty  or  individuality. 

The  engineers  have  been  wholly  content  to  erect  bridges 
that  would  stand  up,  but  while  successful  in  this,  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  bridge  has  been  utterly  neglected,  for  the 
great  majority  of  bridges  are  of  not  too  good  engineering 
design,  containing  far  more  metal  than  is  necessary  in  cer- 
tain parts  while  other  parts  too  little.  This  is  proven  by 
the  frequent  strengthening  of  and  additions  to  existing 
bridges,  the  removal  of  tracks,  and  their  unnecessarily  high 
cost.  Thus  our  engineers  can  only  be  credited  with  the 
roughest  kind  of  work,  which  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  since 
the  mind  that  would  be  satisfied  with  an  aesthetically  ugly 
bridge  cannot  be  expected  to  avoid  imperfections  in  the 
practical  side  of  the  bridge's  design. 

The  great  importance  thus  of  the  bridge,  both  in  the 
practical  and  aesthetic  life  of  the  city,  demands  that  its 
design  and  construction  receive  the  utmost  care  and  atten- 
tion. No  single  part  of  the  plan  of  a  city,  with  the  exception 
of  the  civic  center,  is  of  greater  importance  than  its  bridges. 
The  civic  center  may  be  likened  to  the  main  hallway  of  a 
building  and  the  bridges  to  the  portals.  Often  the  first 
impression  of  a  city  and  frequently  the  most  lasting  one  is 
gained  from  a  bridge,  and  as  the  entrance  to  the  city  it 
should  be  treated  with  the  dignity  it  deserves  and  be  made  a 
feature  of  the  city's  plan  rather  than  a  mere  encroachment 
of  a  utilitarian  nature. 

A  bridge  should  be  considered  aesthetically  from  three 
principal  points  of  view:    the  bridge  itself,  the  bridge  in  its 


WATER    FRONT    PARK    AND    LIGHT-TRAFFIC    BRIDGE    AT    BONN 


HEAVY    TRAFFIC    BRIDGE    AT    COLOGNE 
Two  monumental  bridges  over  the  Rhine 


ALEXANDER    BRIDGIJ,    PARIS 


SPREE    BRIDGE,    BERLIN,    CHARLOTTENBURG 
Superb    examples    of   modern    (tcslhelic    bridges 


BRIDGES   AND   BRIDGE  APPROACHES 


101 


relation  to  its  approaches,  and  the  whole  effect  of  the  bridge 
and  its  approaches  in  relation  to  its  environment. 

In  its  design  it  should  be  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of 
the  city's  plan  and  it  should  be  located  in  reference  to  the 
whole  plan  of  the  city  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  the  most 


Figs.  24,  25  and  26.   different  types  of  bridges,    suspension, 
stone  and  arch  construction 

Borsig,  Hobrecht  and  Achenbach  Bridges,  a  few  of  the  many  xsihetic  Bridges  in  Berlin, 
which  greally  add  to  the  Convenience,  Traffic  Facilities  and  Picturesque  Appearance  of 
the  City 

efficient  and  pleasing  result.  A  bridge  may  for  example 
serve  as  a  terminal  or  focal  of  an  important  avenue  or  for 
several  converging  avenues,  full  advantage  thus  being  taken 
of  its  architectural  importance. 

Its   location  having  been   determined,  the   bridge   itself 
should  be  of  such  a  design  as  to  meet  in  the  most  direct  and 


102  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

practicable  manner  the  conditions  it  will  be  called  upon  to 
fulfill,  and  its  approaches  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to 
enhance  its  value  rather  than,  as  is  so  often  the  case,  of  such 
a  character  as  to  detract  if  not  ruin  its  entire  effect. 

In  order  to  achieve  the  proper  result  it  is  necessary  for 
the  bridge  engineer  to  co-operate  with  the  architect  in  the 
design  of  the  bridge  and  its  approaches  and  with  the  city 
planner  or  civic  architect  in  its  relations  to  the  plan  of  the 
city  as  a  whole.  Unless  this  is  done,  bridges  will  continue  to 
be  ugly,  misplaced  and  ill  suited  to  their  purposes. 

Numerous  contributory  causes,  however,  in  addition  to 
the  lack  of  co-operation  between  engineer  and  architect,  go  to 
produce  the  inartistic  effect  so  prevalent  in  American  bridges, 
among  which  are  absence  of  governmental  supervision, 
necessity  of  keeping  cost  at  the  minimum,  legal  hindrances, 
haste  in  construction,  undue  competition  and  use  of  con- 
tractor's plans  or  of  one  set  of  standard  plans  for  numbers  of 
bridges,  imitation  of  railroad  bridges  for  other  places  and  the 
absence  of  any  well-settled  forms  for  the  artistic  treatment 
of  iron  construction. 

The  last-named  reason  is  one  of  considerable  importance, 
since,  like  skyscrapers,  modern  metal  bridges  are  a  modern 
structural  form  and  there  has  not  as  yet  been  time  nor 
talent  enough  given  to  the  subject  to  develop  a  satisfactory 
architectural  treatment.  In  this  quarter,  however,  American 
designers  have  much  to  learn  from  European  practice  and 
examples,  as  the  problem  of  building  bridges  of  artistic  con- 
struction is  being  solved  with  splendid  results. 

In  the  aesthetic  design  of  a  bridge,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  bridge  is  a  work  of  architectural  art  and  that 
as  such  it  should  conform  in  its  own  field,  with  the  general 
principles  of  artistic  design  which  have  been  noted  as  being 
the  rules  of  city  planning  in  general. 

The  first  principle  is  that  of  unity.  The  bridge  with  its 
approaches  should  produce  the  impression  of  being  a  single 
homogenous  structure.  It  should  also  show  appropriateness 
to  its  surroundings;  it  should  be  symmetrical,  harmonious  in 
proportion,  simple,  obvious  in  the  relation  of  its  structure  to 


BRIDGES   AND   BRIDGE  APPROACHES  103 

its  purposes,  economical  in  the  use  of  material  and  embel- 
lished without  over-ornamentation. 

With  the  bridge  itself  constructed  in  accordance  with  such 
principles,  its  approaches  should  be  treated  in  a  similar 
spirit  and  made  to  add  to  the  dignity  and  effect  of  the 
bridge.  A  plaza  suitably  laid  out  is  almost  a  necessity  for  a 
bridge  of  any  size,  while  a  suitable  view  of  the  bridge  as  it  is 
approached  is  another  essential.  A  glaring  violation  of  this 
principle  is  seen  in  the  approaches  to  the  Brooklyn  Bridge, 
in  itself  one  of  the  finest  of  the  bridges  of  this  country,  but 
which  has  at  each  end  a  huge  barn-like  terminal  structure, 
effectually  concealing  the  bridge  as  it  is  approached. 

The  terminal  plaza  may  even  with  good  results  be  a  park 
of  some  size,  suitably  laid  out  and  embellished,  and  the 
bridge  thus  be  given  the  benefit  of  a  most  favorable  ap- 
proach. 

The  principal  types  of  bridges  are  the  arch,  the  suspen- 
sion, the  cantilever  and  the  truss.  The  selection  of  type  will 
depend  on  natural  conditions  and  on  question  of  traffic,  cost 
and  materials.  Thus  a  narrow  stream  with  high  banks  over 
which  a  considerable  vehicular  traffic  is  to  be  carried  may 
well  be  bridged  by  a  stone  arch  type,  while  a  wide  river  with 
islands  to  be  bridged  for  railroad  purposes  may  best  be 
bridged  by  a  cantilever,  especially  if  the  swiftness  of  the 
current  prevents  the  erection  of  the  falsework  necessary  in 
the  construction  of  an  arch  bridge. 

While  its  first  cost  is  great,  the  erection  of  a  stone  arch 
bridge  should  always  be  considered,  where  the  span  is  not 
too  great,  since  in  artistic  effect  the  stone  bridge  is  most 
pleasing,  and  when  its  centuries  of  permanency  are  considered 
the  cheapest  in  ultimate  cost.  A  recent  stone  bridge  with  a 
span  of  328  feet  (100  meters)  has  been  erected  at  Rome, 
which  is  the  limit  at  present  in  size  for  this  type. 

In  reinforced  concrete  bridges  the  most  beautiful  artistic 
effects  are  to  be  obtained.  It  is  a  new  form  of  bridge,  how- 
ever, which  requires  the  highest  degree  of  skill  both  in  design 
and  construction,  but  in  which  splendid  results  have  been 
obtained,  exceeding  in  length  the  limit  of  stone  bridges  and 


104  CITY   PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

having  a  graceful  delicacy  and  loftiness  of  effect  in  remark- 
able contrast  to  the  ponderous  effect  of  the  stone  bridges. 

The  metal  arch  bridge  is  widely  developed  in  a  great 
variety  of  forms,  with  arches  ranging  up  to  1,000  feet  in 
length,  as  in  the  proposed  Hell  Gate  Bridge,  at  New  York 
City. 

The  cantilever  form  of  bridge  is  the  most  difTicult  of  all 
in  which  to  obtain  artistic  effect,  although  good  effects  are 
not  impossible.  It  readily  admits  long  spans,  however,  and 
is  often  the  type  selected  from  commercial  and  utilitarian 
reasons.  Generally  speaking  the  cantilever  bridges  are  ugly, 
and,  not  obviously  disclosing  their  principles  in  their  con- 
struction, are  but  little  understood  by  the  public. 

The  suspension  bridge  is  a  form  which  is  of  great  natural 
beauty  and  simplicity.  It  is  particularly  suitable  to  enor- 
mous spans,  such  as  the  Brooklyn  Bridge,  which  is  1,595  feet 
between  towers,  but  it  is  a  type  in  which  the  weight  of  the 
bridge  should  be  large  in  comparison  with  the  live  load 
carried,  and  is  not  therefore  a  type  suitable  for  small  bridges. 

The  truss  is  a  form  for  short  and  medium  spans  and  is 
widely  used  on  railroad  bridges.  It  is  usually  very  ugly  but 
is  cheap  and  efficient. 

Plate  girder  bridges,  a  form  of  truss,  are  used  for  very 
short  spans,  such  as  viaducts  over  streets,  but  if  properly 
treated  not  only  need  not  be  ugly  but  can  be  of  a  very  orna- 
mental effect. 

A  determining  feature  in  the  design  of  bridges  is  the 
relative  position  of  the  roadway,  which  may  be  placed  at  the 
top,  at  the  bottom  or  intermediately.  Old  Roman  stone 
arch  bridges  of  semi-circular  arch  form,  the  only  type  of 
arch  they  built,  with  roadway  at  the  top  and  numerous  small 
spans  in  the  center,  have  never  been  surpassed  in  substantial 
dignity  and  aesthetic  effect,  though  modern  arch  bridges  with 
their  arches  in  ellipses  and  segments  of  circles  are  more  grace- 
ful in  effect.  The  suspension  bridge  is  among  the  finest  of  the 
forms  in  which  the  roadway  is  at  the  bottom. 

Although  artistic  bridges  may  appear  more  expensive, 
yet  with  proper  engineering,  the  material  saved  as  compared 


BRIDGES  AND  BRIDGE  APPROACHES  105 

with  a  badly  designed  bridge  will  more  than  compensate  for 
any  extra  cost  of  the  artistic  form. 

The  best  method  of  securing  the  proper  design  of  bridges 
is  that  followed  to  a  large  extent  in  Germany.  Competition 
plans  are  invited  from  engineering  concerns  of  standing, 
principally  having  in  view  the  aesthetic  appearance  and 
approximate  cost.  The  three  best  plans  are  awarded  prizes 
and,  upon  being  paid  for,  become  the  property  of  the  city, 
which  thereupon  calls  for  definite  proposals  for  the  erection 
of  a  bridge  in  accordance  with  first  prize  winning  plan.  The 
various  competing  concerns  submit  bids  with  detail  drawings, 
and  the  best  bidder  is  awarded  the  work.  Thus  it  may 
happen  as  it  occasionally  does  that  the  concern  submitting 
the  design  adopted  only  gets  the  prize  and  not  the  contract 
for  the  erection  of  the  bridge,  although  the  prize-winning 
concern  has  much  the  best  chance  of  being  awarded  the 
contract. 

A  system  of  this  character  would  undoubtedly  have  the 
effect  of  greatly  improving  American  bridges. 


CHAPTER  IX 

TRAFFIC  AND    TRANSPORTATION 

Electric  Traction;  Surface,  Elevated  and  Subway  Traffic; 
Statistics  of  Rapid  Transit;  Moving  Platforms;  Vehicular 
Traffic;  Naming  of  Streets 

With  the  growth  of  a  village  into  a  town  and  the  town 
into  a  city,  its  area  becomes  so  extended  that  artificial 
means  of  transportation  are  necessary.  It  is  no  longer 
possible  for  the  citizens  to  transact  their  business  afoot,  and 
the  larger  a  city  grows,  the  more  numerous  and  speedy 
must  its  transportation  facilities  become. 

The  trolley  car,  of  the  various  forms  of  transportation 
which  have  been  evolved,  is  the  one  that  has  been  most 
widely  adopted,  and  of  late  years,  to  an  increasing  extent, 
since  the  use  of  electricity  has  been  developed. 

This  vehicle,  although  in  wide  use  for  less  than  a  genera- 
tion, has  proved  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  the 
growth  of  cities  and  suburban  communities  that  has  ever 
been  invented.  The  demands  for  quicker  street  transporta- 
tion produced  in  large  cities,  the  cable  car  and  elevated 
steam  railroads,  but  both  were  more  or  less  unsatisfactory, 
and  the  horse  car  remained  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
traffic  of  the  large  city  and  for  the  whole  of  the  traffic  of  the 
smaller  cities,  the  only  expedient. 

Electric  traction,  however,  has  superseded  both  the  cable 
car  and  the  steam  elevated  road,  and  has  made  possible  the 
subway  and  river  tunnels,  which  were  previously  out  of  the 
question,  owing  to  the  smoke  of  locomotives.  Electric 
transportation  has  made  surface  travel  as  speedy  as  is  con- 
sistent with  safety,  and  it  has  enabled  business  to  be  con- 
centrated in  the  centers  of  cities  and  homes  to  be  located  in 
the  outlying  districts.     Electric  traction  has  thus  in  a  few 


I  -- hl         1   ^*^   l»>aSfc'  ■         •I'lV.,,  Til-     -■=^- — 
T    ■■"    J         >-*wr  ■"■     "*     *  .       ;.  ,n  •  .- 


NEW    AND    TYPICAL    AMERICAN    RAILWAY    STATIONS 

Union  Slalion,  Washinglon,  D.  C,  Grand  Central  Slalion,  New  York,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Station,  New  York 


RAILWAY    STATION,    COLOGNE 


*°*'^- "^'^^^  - 


RAILWAY    STATION,    FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAIN 

Forecourt  squares  for  Irallic  distribution 


TRAFFIC  AND   TRANSPORTATION  107 

decades  released  the  city  from  the  bondage  of  slow  trans- 
portation and  has  stimulated  urban  growth  in  a  way  that 
would  never  have  been  possible  under  other  conditions. 

The  only  rival  of  electric  traction  is  the  automobile,  for 
the  most  part,  a  gasoline  engine  driven  vehicle.  In  the  form 
of  coaches  or  busses,  it  is  used  to  a  great  extent  in  London 
and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  other  cities,  but  it  seems  quite 
unlikely  that  it  will  ever  become  a  serious  rival  of  electric 
traction  in  the  form  of  cars  on  rails. 

As  a  civic  problem,  therefore,  transportation  reduces  it- 
self to  the  best  method  of  laying  out  street  car  routes  and 
subway  and  elevated  systems,  and  the  proper  regulation  of 
vehicular  traffic . 

The  transportation  system  of  a  city  should  be  so  arranged 
as  to  furnish  as  direct  a  means  of  transportation  as  can  be 
obtained,  from  every  point  in  the  city  to  every  other  point, 
at  a  single  fare,  and  to  furnish  ample  facilities  without 
congestion. 

A  highly  desirable  object,  in  the  transportation  system  of 
a  city,  is  to  have  the  cars  reasonably  filled  at  all  times,  since 
this  reduces  the  cost.  In  cities  in  which  the  residential 
districts  are  at  one  end,  and  the  business  and  manufacturing 
districts  at  another,  this  cannot  be  accomplished,  as  the  cars 
must  run  empty  away  from  the  business  districts  in  the 
morning  and  empty  toward  them  in  the  afternoon.  If, 
however,  the  business  district  is  in  the  center  of  the  city,  the 
street  car  traffic  may  be  arranged  to  much  better  advantage, 
as  routes  of  cars  may  be  laid  out  to  traverse  the  city  from 
end  to  end,  passing  through  the  business  districts,  or  trans- 
ferring to  lines  that  do. 

One  of  the  best  systems  of  tranfers  is  that  in  which  a 
loop  or  belt  line  runs  around  and  just  outside  of  the  civic 
center,  with  all  cars  passing  over  the  loop  or  portions  of  it 
and  transferring  to  all  other  cars.  For  example,  in  a  city 
laid  out  on  the  radial  plan,  eight  lines  double  tracked  will 
serve  to  traverse  sixteen  of  the  radial  avenues,  each  line  on 
reaching  the  loop  passing  around  half  of  it  in  a  semi-circle 
and  continuing  on  out  the  radial  avenue  directly  opposite 


108  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


.< 

\ 

\ 

^ 

\    - 

\/ 

\ 

/t 

'■•v.    \. 

Fig.  27.   density  of  population  of  paris 


TRAFFIC   AND   TRANSPORTATION 


109 


the  one  by  which  it  entered  the  loop.  Each  Hne  would  thus 
have  seven  transfer  points  from  each  of  which  the  passengers 
could  proceed  in  either  direction  over  the  seven  other  lines 
covering  the  other  fourteen  radial  avenues.     A  number  of 


Fig.  28.   volume  of  traffic  in  paris,  including  belt  and  street 
railways,  subway  and  omnibus  lines 

The  width  of  the  Lines  is  in  proportion  to  the  respective  volumes  of  Traffic 

transfer  points  serve  to  distribute  the  traffic  with  less  con- 
gestion than  if  the  transferring  were  all  done  at  a  single 
point. 

If  the  traffic  of  the  city  is  heavy,  it  is  advisable  to  have 
the  loop  constituted  of  several  sets  of  tracks  in  parallel,  in 
order  that  the  cars  of  the  different  lines  will  not  be  subject 


110  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

to  delay  by  those  of  others.  An  example  of  the  necessity  of 
ample  loop  facilities  is  seen  in  the  Brooklyn  Bridge  Terminal 
in  New  York,  where  eight  fishhook-shaped  loops  are  needed 
to  handle  the  cars  which  stream  across  the  bridge  over  a 
single  track. 

In  connection  with  such  a  system  of  radiating  car  lines  or 
lines  intersecting  at  the  center  of  the  city,  circumferential  or 
belt  lines  at  different  distances  from  the  center  of  the  city, 
transferring  to  all  the  lines  intersected,  will  serve  to  make  the 
transportation  facilities  complete. 

In  cities  in  which  the  plan  is  such  that  a  loop  cannot 
conveniently  be  laid  out,  a  system  which  obtains  much  the 
same  results  is  that  in  which  all  the  lines  converge  and  pass 
through  a  trafTic  square,  which  may  contain  a  number  of 
tracks  with  the  transfer  points  for  transferring  to  all  lines 
conveniently  arranged. 

Street  cars  in  cities  are  principally  useful  for  short  haul 
traffic,  since  speed  is  not  possible  in  the  congested  districts 
and  long  hauls  are  both  unprofitable  to  the  operating  com- 
panies and  wasteful  of  the  time  of  the  passengers.  Only 
when  the  trolley  car  reaches  the  outlying  districts,  where 
greater  speed  is  permissible,  can  it  be  regarded  as  a  means  of 
real  rapid  transit. 

For  the  purpose  of  transporting  large  numbers  of  persons 
over  considerable  distances,  recourse  must  be  had  to  trains  of 
cars,  having  the  right  of  way  and  making  but  infrequent 
stops.  This  condition  can  only  be  obtained  on  elevated  or 
subway  roads,  or  by  means  of  railroads  with  their  suburban 
traffic  lines  running  into  terminals  well  within  the  heart  of 
the  city.  Such  lines  should  be  laid  out  with  the  idea  of 
distributing  traffic  from  the  main  arteries  of  the  city  to  the 
outlying  districts,  and  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  accommo- 
date both  local  and  express  traffic,  that  is  local  lines  with 
stops  every  five  or  ten  blocks  and  express  lines  with  the 
fewest  possible  number  of  stops  between  terminals. 

Elevated  roads,  though  cheaper  in  first  cost  than  subways, 
should  not  be  constructed  if  they  can  be  avoided,  as  the  de- 
preciation  to   property   due   to    their   presence,    and   other 


TRAFFIC   AND   TRANSPORTATION  111 

features  of  a  disagreeable    nature,  more  than  offset,  in  the 
long  run,  their  cheapness. 

A  somewhat  more  satisfactory  system  for  lighter  traffic 
is  the  suspended  railway,  in  which  the  cars  travel  on  mono- 
rails, the  cars  being  below  the  rail.  This  system  is  less 
noisy,  does  not  darken  the  street  so  much  or  prove  the 
obstruction  that  the  usual  elevated  structure  is.  Short 
curves  can  be  taken  at  higher  speeds,  and  the  structure  can 
be  more  readily  run  above  canals  or  other  waterways.  It 
is  cheaper  in  first  cost  and  in  operating  cost,  and  it  is  in 
successful  use  in  Europe,  though  never  having  been  intro- 
duced here. 

Subways  have  proved  a  very  popular  form  of  rapid 
transit  in  all  the  principal  cities  of  the  world.  They  do 
not  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  streets  and,  when  properly 
designed  and  operated,  are  a  quick  and  pleasant  method  of 
transit.  By  means  of  three  or  more  tracks,  they  can  easily 
be  arranged  to  accommodate  express  traffic. 

Subways  should  preferably  be  located  as  near  to  the 
street  level  as  possible,  to  be  readily  accessible  without 
recourse  to  elevators  or  escalators.  However,  between  the 
ceiling  of  the  subway  and  the  street  surface,  sufficient  space 
should  be  left  for  the  proper  gas  and  water  mains  and  sewer 
pipes.  In  addition,  this  will  furnish  sufficient  soil  for  the 
growth  of  shrubs  and  small  trees  in  the  grass  plots  along 
the  sidewalks. 

Public  opinion  abroad  demands  that  subways  and  ele- 
vated roads  receive  the  proper  treatment  from  an  artistic 
standpoint,  especially  in  order  that  a  sense  of  harmony  may 
be  obtained  in  a  given  locality. 

An  instance  of  this  was  seen  in  connection  with  the  con- 
struction of  the  elevated  and  subway  road  in  Berlin,  some 
fifteen  years  ago.  There  was,  to  begin  with,  decided  opposi-  \ 
tion  and  prejudice  to  such  a  structure,  and  although  the 
plans,  when  presented,  incorporated  designs  and  artistic 
features  which  are  wanting  in  the  elevated  structures  of 
New  York  and  Chicago,  the  promoters  of  the  undertaking 
were  forced  to  call  further  upon  the  talent  of  the  country 


112 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


for  competitive  plans,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  designs, 
not  only  of  stations,  but  of  the  entire  structure,  including 
viaducts,  etc.,  which  would  be  acceptable  from  an  aesthetic 
point  of  view.     It  was  further  required,  in  order  to  do  away 


Fig.  29.   volume  of  traffic  in  berlin,  including  city  and  belt 
railways,  elevated  and  subway,  surface  car  and  omnibus 

LINES 
The  width  of  Lines  is  in  proportion  to  the  respective  volumes  of  Traffic 

with  monotony  of  effect,  that  no  two  stations  should  be  of 
the  same  style  of  architecture. 

After  plans  were  finally  accepted  by  the  commission 
and  portions  of  the  road  were  actually  completed,  impor- 
tant changes  were  ordered  to  further  satisfy  public  criticism. 

For  example,  the  Biilow  Street  Station,  with  its  ornate 
iron  work,  massive  stone  terminals  and  well-studied  grill- 
work,  resulted.  The  heavy  stone  pillars  take  the  place  of 
original   steel   columns  which  were   removed   in  compliance 


TRAFFIC   AND   TRANSPORTATION  113 

with  a  strong  public  sentiment  for  something  more  pleasing 
to  the  eye. 

The  station  itself  is  well  worthy  of  remark,  furnishing 
an  interesting  solution  of  the  combination  of  stone  and  iron 
in  a  manner  appropriate  to  both,  especially  noticeable  in 
the  adoption  of  acroteria  at  the  peak  of  the  gable  and  at 
each  side,  forming  a  gutter  fully  explained  by  the  otherwise 
uninteresting  leader  pipes. 

An  especially  successful  combination  of  architecture  and 
engineering  is  found  in  the  NoUendorf  Place  Station,  which 
marks  the  dividing  line  between  the  elevated  and  under- 
ground sections  of  the  road.  The  station  itself  is  a  rather 
severe  design  of  iron  and  glass,  supported  by  massive  stone 
pillars.  Other  stations  along  the  elevated  portions  of  the 
route  are  to  be  commended  for  their  beauty  and  artistic 
treatment,  mediaeval  in  type  to  harmonize  with  surrounding 
buildings  in  certain  locations,  and  always,  even  where  there 
is  no  special  architectural  feature,  the  manner  of  the  treat- 
ment of  the  steel  columns  is  a  tribute  to  the  art  of  the 
engineer.  A  problem  of  an  interesting  nature  is  solved  at 
the  point  where  the  elevated  road  crosses  the  Anhalter  rail- 
road bridge,  which  itself  spans  the  Landwehr  Canal. 

Before  construction  began,  experimental  sections  were 
put  up,  in  order  to  test  various  forms  of  roadbed,  with  a 
view  to  adopting  the  type  over  which  the  trains  could  be 
operated  with  the  least  noise.  Rubber  and  felt  layers  were 
tried,  between  ties  and  structure,  and  various  hard  woods 
were  used  for  plates  between  ties  and  rails,  all  of  which 
proved  more  or  less  unsatisfactory.  Rails  placed  directly 
on  the  iron  structure,  or  on  ties,  produced  greater  noise 
than  when  placed  on  wooden  stringers.  Pure  lattice  girder 
construction  produced  more  noise  than  plate  girder  type. 
However,  to  erect  pure  plate  girder  construction  in  a  city 
elevated  road,  where  such  a  persistent  demand  for  artistic 
effects  is  made,  is  practically  out  of  the  question.  To  re- 
duce noise  with  the  lattice  type  of  construction,  and  to 
furnish  at  the  same  time  a  more  satisfactory  roadbed,  the 
iron  cross-beams  surmounting  the  main  girders  are  embedded 


114  CITY   PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

in  concrete.  The  roadbed  ballast  consists  of  gravel.  A 
more  or  less  solid,  noise-absorbing  construction  is  thus  pro- 
duced, which  approximates  an  embankment,  the  form  of 
elevated  construction  in  which  there  is  the  least  noise.  It 
becomes  more  of  a  rumble  than  a  rattle  and  a  screech. 

Of  interest  in  this  connection,  is  the  point  where  the 
elevated  structure  crosses  the  Landwehr  Canal  above  men- 
tioned. Here  its  course  is  through  an  old  building,  remod- 
elled for  the  purpose.  It  was  intended  to  utilize  it  for 
storage  purposes  after  the  erection  of  the  road,  but  the 
noise  problem  was  so  successfully  met,  that  it  is  occupied  by- 
tenants  for  dwelling  purposes. 

Much  discussion  prevailed  at  the  time  of  the  opening  of 
the  New  York  subway  system  and  many  complaints  found 
vent  in  the  columns  of  the  daily  press  as  to  the  unsightly 
kiosks  of  the  system,  several  of  which  are  not  only  incon- 
veniently and  dangerously  situated,  but  are  also  the  quintes- 
sence of  ugliness. 

Seemingly  no  consideration  was  given  to  the  harmony  of 
the  surroundings,  the  stations  reminding  one  of  small  barns 
rather  than  of  structures  forming  parts  of  residential  dis- 
tricts. Although  European  underground  railways  were  al- 
ready in  operation  at  the  time  subways  were  proposed  here, 
and  a  Subway  commission  had  been  sent  to  Europe  for  the 
purpose  of  studying  the  installations  there,  the  public  did 
not  seem  to  profit  by  the  pleasing  designs  of  the  foreign 
stations  when  our  own  came  to  be  erected,  such  for  example 
as  those  of  the  Buda-Pest  subway. 

The  New  York  subway  system  has  been  held  up  as  being 
the  foremost  in  the  world,  but  the  well-informed  portion  of 
the  public  familiar  with  other  systems  is  aware  of  its  architec- 
tural inferiority,  to  say  nothing  of  the  inferior  ventilation  and 
service  as  compared  with  systems  abroad. 

As  a  means  of  connection  between  subways,  terminals, 
bridges  and  the  like,  moving  sidewalks  are  used  with  great 
advantage.  They  should  be  run  in  three  parallel  divisions 
at  speeds  of  some  three,  six  and  nine  miles  an  hour,  enabling 
pedestrians  to  step  from  one  platform  to  another  without 


ELEVATED    RAILWAY    STATION,    SCHLESISCHES    TOR,    BERLIN 


ELECTRIC    ELEVATED    RAILWAY,    S(  ;H(')M  1 AISKR    ALLKK,    BERLIN 

The  elevated  structure  is  popularly  knoum  as  Berlin's  Umbrella.      On  the  left  is  an 

example  of  the  numerous  adrerlising  columns 


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TRAFFIC  AND   TRANSPORTATION  115 

danger  or  inconvenience.  Such  sidewalks  may  either  be 
provided  with  seats  or  left  bare,  for  walking,  as  with  the 
additional  speed  of  walking,  from  eleven  to  twelve  miles 
an  hour  can  be  made  on  the  highest  speeded  platform. 

Such  platforms  are  highly  useful,  in  fact  a  public  neces- 
sity in  certain  places,  for  connecting  terminals  where  it  is 
not  feasible  to  put  in  cars. 

A  highly  important  feature  in  laying  out  rapid  transit 
lines  is  the  convenient  and  quick  transfer  at  stations  and 
terminals  to  local  transit  lines.  Such  transfer  should  be 
made  with  as  few  steps  as  possible,  and  with  the  greatest 
ease  and  safety.  This  is  a  feature  much  neglected  by  rapid 
transit  companies  in  America,  long  stretches  of  walking 
being  necessary  at  terminals,  greatly  to  the  delay  and  incon- 
venience of  the  public. 

Transportation  in  the  leading  cities  of  the  world  by 
rapid  transit  lines  offers  many  interesting  figures  for  com- 
parison. While  New  York  shows  a  higher  charge  and  a 
greater  number  of  passengers  carried,  the  length  of  haul  is 
also  greater,  while  in  comparing  the  figures,  the  purchasing 
power  of  money  in  the  various  places  must  be  taken  into 
consideration,  as  the  2.5  cents  which  is  the  average  fare, 
for  example,  on  the  Paris  Metropolitan  system,  has  a  much 
greater  purchasing  power  than  the  same  sum  in  New  York, 
and  is  consequently  a  higher  fare  than  appears  from  the 
face  of  the  figures. 

Passengers  Per  Car  Mile  in  the  Larger  Cities 
OF  the  World 

Rapid  Transit  Railways 

Berlin  Elevated  Railway 8.0 

Paris  Metropolitan 8.0 

Liverpool  Elevated  Railway 5.9 

London  (Central)  Subway 4.9 

New  York  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Co 4.1 

Vienna  City  Railway 2.8 


116  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Average  Fare  Per  Passenger  Per  Trip  in  the  Larger 
Cities  of  the  World 
Railway  Systems  Cents 

New  York  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Co 5 

Chicago  Elevated  Railway 5 

London  (Central)  Subway  Railway 3.7 

Liverpool  Elevated  Railway 3.3 

Buda-Pest  Subway  Railway 3.4 

Berlin  Elevated  and  Subway  Railway      3.0 

Vienna  City  Railway 2.8 

Paris  Metropolitan 2.5 

Berlin  City  and  Belt  Railways 1.6 

American  city  transit  facilities  are  largely  a  patchwork 
of  different  lines,  usually  constructed  in  a  haphazard  manner 
without  any  regard  to  the  convenience  of  the  public  in  trans- 
ferring from  the  cars  of  one  system  to  those  of  another.  In 
fact,  the  companies  are  usually  antagonistic  and  do  every- 
thing in  their  power  to  avoid  co-operation,  supposedly  for 
their  own  gain.  Such  conditions  are  maintained  at  the 
expense  of  the  public,  and  arise  out  of  the  fact  that  city 
transit  is  a  game  for  private  corporations,  and  that  city 
administrations,  holding  office  but  for  a  brief  period,  are 
unable  to  develop  the  transit  plan  on  any  definite  basis, 
necessarily  proceeding  by  piecemeal  from  administration  to 
administration.  Without  experience  in  engineering  under- 
takings of  such  magnitude,  or  for  that  matter  of  any  mag- 
nitude usually,  they  are  unable  to  work  out  a  properly 
designed  system  of  interlinking  traffic. 

Contracts  drawn  up  between  cities  and  private  corpora- 
tions for  transit  facilities  are  too  often  examples  of  monu- 
mental incompetency  in  administration  and  engineering,  and 
utterly  lacking  in  foresight  or  any  sense  of  the  present  or 
future  needs  of  the  cities.  The  principal  object  of  the  cor- 
poration appears  to  be  to  "tie  the  city  up,"  and  this  is 
usually  accomphshed  by  contracts  for  long  leases,  full  of 
loopholes  for  the  company  and  disadvantages  for  the  city 
and  the  public. 

Such  a  condition  is  not  only  true  in  regard  to  traction 


TRAFFIC   AND   TRANSPORTATION  117 

franchises  but  in  every  dealing  which  cities  have  with  private 
corporations. 

As  indicated,  the  short  tenure  of  office  of  officials  in 
American  cities  is  largely  to  blame  for  this  condition,  with 
the  further  circumstance  that  the  office  holders,  usually  not 
being  large  property  holders,  are  not  particularly  interested 
in  the  welfare  of  the  city  as  such.  Their  personal  interests 
may  thus  very  easily  run  counter  to  the  interests  of  the 
city,  and  the  city  is  thus  badly  represented  in  all  its  dealings 
with  corporations. 

In  Germany  a  much  better  system  prevails,  politics 
being  entirely  eliminated  and  the  governing  of  the  city  being 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  "city  fathers."  They  are  selected 
on  account  of  their  large  property  holdings  in  the  city.  The 
city  fathers  as  a  class  are  men  who  command  respect  on 
account  of  their  means,  standing  and  ability,  which  is  far 
from  being  the  case  with  American  aldermen,  to  whom  it 
would  be  largely  ridiculous  to  apply  the  term  city  fathers. 
The  private  interests  of  the  German  city  fathers  are  thus 
identical  with  the  city's  interests,  as  any  unfavorable  bar- 
gains made  by  the  city  will  affect  their  property  unfavor- 
ably. In  deals  with  corporations  the  German  cities  are 
thus  properly  represented,  both  as  to  the  interest  and  as 
to  the  ability  of  their  representatives,  and  they  are  not, 
therefore,  betrayed  at  every  turn  as  are  American  cities. 

The  German  city  fathers,  having  a  real  sense  of  re- 
sponsibility of  the  city's  interests,  have  the  foresight  to 
engage,  in  addition  to  the  city's  engineers,  advisory  engineers 
for  unusual  undertakings,  so  that  the  city  has  at  all  times 
the  advantage  of  the  highest  technical  skill,  requisite  not 
only  in  the  construction  of  transit  systems,  but  in  the  many 
other  departments  of  the  city's  activities  as  well. 

In  the  entire  management  of  cities,  the  greater  and  more 
important  problems  are  those  of  engineering,  and  it  un- 
fortunately too  often  happens  in  American  cities  that 
engineering  undertakings  are  conducted  by  politicians  or 
"city  engineers"  appointed  for  political  reasons  and  with 
very  limited  experience. 


118 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


In  congested  traffic  districts  and  merchandise  freight 
districts,  underground  highways  or  double-decked  street 
could  with  great  advantage  be  employed.  Such  under- 
ground highways  could  contain,  in  addition  to  tram  cars 
for  freight,  wagonways  and  footways  or  moving  sidewalks. 

A  somewhat  similar  system, 
where  it  is  desired  to  avoid 
excavation,  would  be  a 
double-decked  street,  in 
which  a  complete  street  is 
built  above  the  first  street, 
in  the  form  of  an  elevated 
structure.  On  the  upper 
street  could  be  handled  light 
traffic  and  pedestrian  traffic, 
and  on  the  lower  one,  freight 
and  heavy  traffic. 

In   many  cases  where  it 
is  impracticable    or   too   ex- 


FlG.  30.     SECTION  OF  THE  ROTHER- 


HITHE  TUNNEL  UNDER  THE  THAMES,     pgnsivC    tO     SpaU     WldC     HVCrS 
LONDON,    FOR    PEDESTRIAN    AND         ^-^^         j^^jj  ^         j^^^jj^j^ 

VEHICULAR    TRAFFIC,    WITH  . ,        ,  ?  •        .  • 

PIPE  GALLERY  mcthod     of    commuuicatiou 

and  one  involving  much  less 
cost,  is  'that  in  the  form  of  tubes  or  tunnels,  such  as  the 
Rotherhithe  and  Blackwell  tunnels  under  the  Thames.  These 
tunnels  are  Hghted  and  used  just  as  streets  and  a  great 
volume  of  traffic  passes  through  them.  Similar  tubes  are 
used  under  the  Hudson  for  electric  trains  from  New  York 
to  New  Jersey  towns,  and  additional  tubes  are  in  con- 
templation for  vehicular  traffic,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
finding  suitable  foundations  for  bridges  over  the  Hudson. 

The  proper  distribution  of  vehicular  traffic  is  a  problem 
which  demands  consideration  from  the  very  outset  of  city 
planning.  The  presence  of  congestion  at  any  point  is  the 
result  of  improper  planning  and  nothing  else.  Either  the 
streets  are  not  wide  enough  or  numerous  enough,  or  the  dis- 
tricts to  and  from  which  the  traffic  is  passing  are  not 
properly  laid  out  with  reference  to  each  other.     Congestion 


TRAFFIC  AND  TRANSPORTATION  119 

may  be  relieved  by  cutting  through  proper  channels,  giv- 
ing traffic  new  directions,  or  by  scattering  the  sources  from 
which  it  arises. 

Unlike  street  railways,  which  should  all  converge  to  a  com- 
mon point  or  be  otherwise  in  communication  so  that  transfers 
may  be  effected,  the  lines  of  vehicular  traffic  should  be  as 
much  separated  as  possible,  since  the  individual  vehicles  thus 
having  more  room,  can  make  better  speed,  covering  their 
journeys  with  a  minimum  of  expense  and  inconvenience. 

Vehicular  traffic  and  street  railway  traffic  should  be 
planned  to  be  kept  apart  as  far  as  possible,  and  vehicular 
traffic  should  always  be  subjected  to  the  strictest  regulations. 

Heavy  trucks  should  be  confined  to  certain  streets  and 
delivery  wagons  restricted  to  deliveries  at  certain  hours. 
The  use  of  the  streets  for  cab  stands  should  be  restricted 
and  trucks  or  automobiles  of  more  than  certain  sizes  sub- 
ject to  a  heavy  license  tax,  increasing  rapidly  with  their 
bulk.  Street  cars  should  also  be  restricted  in  size  in  order 
to  maintain  a  more  frequent  service. 

Within  the  last  year  there  has  been  put  into  operation  in 
Hamburg  an  automatic  system  of  calling  public  motors 
which  seems  to  be  giving  general  satisfaction.  Thus  far 
Hamburg  is  the  only  city  in  the  world  in  which  the  system 
is  in  use. 

Automatic  machines,  resembling  externally  letter  boxes, 
have  been  placed  at  every  vehicle  stand  in  the  city,  and 
these  machines  are  connected  with  a  central  office  by  an 
individual  wire.  Any  one  who  desires  to  call  a  carriage  and 
who  finds  none  at  the  stand,  places  a  1-mark  piece  ($0,238) 
in  the  machine,  whereupon  his  presence  is  indicated  imme- 
diately at  the  central  office,  and  the  central  office  being  al- 
ready advised  of  the  number  and  location  of  free  vehicles  at 
all  other  stands,  immediately  causes  a  motor  to  proceed  to 
the  waiting  customer,  who  is  credited  with  the  1  mark 
($0,238)  already  paid  into  the  machine  when  he  settles  for 
his  fare. 

The  convenience  of  the  public  and  the  self-respect  of 
citizens  demands  a  suitable  and  dignified  street  nomencla- 


120  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

ture.  Trivial  and  commonplace  street  names  should  be 
avoided,  since  the  householder  gains  no  prestige  through 
living  on  a  street  so  named.  On  the  other  hand,  the  naming 
of  the  streets  should  not  be  carried  out  in  too  high-sounding  a 
manner,  especially  in  suburbs,  but  names  looming  in  promi- 
nence in  about  the  proportion  of  the  prominence  of  the 
street  should  be  selected. 

The  custom  of  naming  streets  and  avenues  by  numbers, 
while  of  a  certain  convenience  in  very  large  cities,  is  monoto- 
nous and  uninteresting.  Naming  streets  by  letters  of  the 
alphabet  is  even  worse.  The  city  of  Washington  is  par- 
ticularly afflicted  in  this  respect,  since  the  names  carry  as 
appendages,  letters  indicating  the  geographical  location  of 
the  streets.  Salt  Lake  has  an  equally  pestiferous  method 
of  indicating  street  locations. 

Where  a  number  of  similar  streets  of  a  gridiron  plan 
are  to  be  named,  a  good  system  to  indicate  their  succession 
without  naming  them  by  numbers  would  be  to  give  them 
names,  the  initial  letters  of  which  would  by  their  alphabetic 
order  indicate  the  location.  With  a  hundred  streets  to 
be  named,  the  first  four  would  be  named  with  names  begin- 
ning with  the  letter  A,  as  Abbott,  Allen,  Arkwright  and 
Atchison.  These  would  be  followed  by  four  streets  begin- 
ning with  B,  and  so  on,  the  general  location  of  the  streets 
thus  being  ascertainable  by  the  alphabetic  initial.  The 
second  letter  of  the  name  would  indicate  the  divisions  in  the 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  Allen  Street  thus  coming  before 
Arkwright  Street. 

American  cities  have  even  acquired  almost  a  habit  in 
the  use  of  certain  names  for  streets.  Perhaps  the  worst  is 
Main  Street,  a  name  which  abounds  in  great  numbers. 
Market  Street  is  a  close  competitor,  while  Springs,  Broads, 
Broadways  and  High  Streets  flourish.  Some  cities  name 
their  streets  after  the  various  states  in  the  Union,  which 
may  be  complimentary  but  is  certainly  without  much  other 
meaning. 

The  naming  of  a  street  is  of  much  more  importance  than 
is  usually  understood,  as  it  has  a  considerable  psychological 


r 


R 


^  >'!«?  ^!||!!5  iJi"'] 


NOLLENDORF  PLAZA  STATION  OF  BERLIN  ELEVATED  RAILROAD 


KIOSK    OF    BUDA-PEST    Sl^BWAY 

Examples  of  massive  and  artislkatly  designed  structures  which  prove  atlraclive 

additions  to  a  city's  appearance 


RING    STREET    AND    VOTIV    CHURCH,    VIENNA 

A   center  of  electric  traction  with  lines  reaching  many  suburbs.     'When  the  lines  were 

municipalized  all  horse  cars  were  discontinued 


TRAFFIC  AND  TRANSPORTATION  121 

effect.  A  street  name  full  of  dignity  or  of  a  unique  charac- 
ter often  makes  a  street  famous,  which  would  otherwise  be 
lost  in  obscurity.  A  street  of  prominence,  however,  may 
often  overcome  the  handicap  of  its  name  and  cause  the 
name  to  have  a  meaning  far  greater  than  the  words  import. 
Thus  Fifth  Avenue  in  New  York,  though  possessing  a 
name  in  itself  of  the  most  commonplace  nature,  has  given 
to  its  name  a  considerable  significance.  No  street,  however, 
named  by  a  letter  of  the  alphabet  alone  has  ever  made 
itself  famous,  the  nearest  perhaps  being  Avenue  A  of  New 
York,  a  notably  mean  street,  and  the  same  is  true  of  streets 
named  by  numbers,  although  a  numbered  street  may  ac- 
quire a  certain  value,  just  as  numbers  used  for  trade-marks 
lose  their  significance  as  numbers  and  become  units  of 
identification. 


CHAPTER  X 

OPEN  SQUARES  AND  TRAFFIC  REGULATIONS 

Traffic  Distributing  Squares;  Transportation  Terminal  Spaces; 
Market  Squares;  Public  Meeting  Places;  Ornamental  and 
Floral  Squares;  Forecourts  of  Public  Buildings  and  En- 
trance Spaces 

Throughout  a  city  there  should  be  at  suitable  locations, 
open  squares  or  places  secondary  in  importance  to  civic 
centers,  but  supplementing  and  relieving  the  civic  centers 
and  other  centers  described. 

Such  open  spaces  should  include:  —  Traffic  distributing 
squares;  transportation  terminal  spaces;  market  squares; 
public  meeting  places;  ornamental  and  floral  squares; 
forecourts  of  public  buildings  and  entrance  spaces. 

Open  spaces  or  squares  have  been  a  feature  of  cities 
since  the  earliest  times.  In  Greek  cities  such  an  open 
square  was  called  an  agora  and  in  Roman  cities  a  forum. 
In  the  latter  it  was  often  an  enlargement  at  the  intersection 
of  the  main  north  and  south  street  and  the  main  east  and 
west  street,  and  arches  were  placed  at  the  entrances. 

Such  squares  were  used  for  various  purposes,  as  for 
public  assemblies,  and  making  of  law,  dispensation  of  jus- 
tice, marketing,  and  public  games.  Aristotle  objected  to 
the  various  uses  of  the  agora  and  advocated  its  restriction 
to  public  purposes  and  the  display  of  works  of  art,  with 
separate  squares  for  market  places. 

Such  a  separation  was  followed  in  Rome  where  certain 
squares  were  for  assemblies  and  debates  and  others  for 
markets,  as  the  forum  boarium  for  cattle,  the  piscarium  for 
fish,  the  olitorium  for  vegetables  and  the  coquinium  for 
ready-cooked  vegetables,  which  was  perhaps  the  forerunner 
of  the  modern  delicatessen  shop. 


SQUARES   AND   TRAFFIC   REGULATIONS  123 

The  necessity  of  public  squares  for  purposes  of  assembly 
is  very  much  less  in  modern  times  than  it  was  in  former 
ages,  since  our  methods  of  elections,  judicial  procedure, 
reference  of  questions  to  committees,  voting  in  small  polling 
units  and  particularly  the  invention  of  newspapers,  render 
assembling  unnecessary  for  many  of  the  purposes  which 
brought  the  public  of  ancient  cities  together. 

On  the  other  hand,  however,  our  improvements  in  trans- 
portation by  wheeled  vehicles  have  been  so  greatly  advanced 
and  great  volumes  of  traffic  are  so  much  in  evidence  that 
we  need  open  spaces  for  purposes  and  in  places  not  required 
by  the  ancients. 

In  a  modern  city,  a  single  place  of  public  assemblage 
in  the  open,  for  occasional  parades  or  meetings,  is  sufTicient, 
but  every  city  should  be  supplied  with  numerous  open 
spaces  designed  to  accommodate  traffic  and  to  serve  to 
distribute  it  in  the  most  expeditious  manner. 

Open  squares  take  several  forms,  the  principal  ones  being 
the  square,  the  circle,  the  oval,  the  rectangle,  the  triangle, 
and  the  irregularly  shaped  plot,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
characteristics. 

In  the  laying  out  of  such  open  spaces  the  volume  of 
traffic  and  the  character  and  uses  of  the  buildings  should 
be  taken  into  consideration.  If  the  square  is  to  be  sur- 
rounded by  public  buildings  of  a  uniform  style,  it  may  be 
made  formal  in  plan,  but  if  the  character  of  the  build- 
ings cannot  be  controlled,  a  formally  laid  out  space  is  likely 
to  be  much  less  effective  than  one  which  has  the  charm 
of  irregularity.  A  form  of  open  space  which  proves  of 
great  interest  and  effectiveness  is  that  which  is  somewhat 
irregular  in  form,  but  generally  rectangular  in  plan.  Pic- 
turesque examples  of  such  forms  of  squares  are  found  in 
many  European  cities.  The  square  is  made  extremely 
individual  in  character  if  it  is  entirely  enclosed  in  a  frame 
of  buildings.  This  appearance  may  be  contributed  to  by 
leading  the  streets  into  it  at  angles  and  by  not  having  it 
crossed  by  the  direct  line  of  street.  This  tangental  form 
of  street  entrance  to  the  square  produces  a  form  of  circula- 


124 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


Figs.  31  to  35.    plans  showing  different  methods  of  solving  the 
problem  of  congested  street  traffic 


SQUARES  AND  TRAFFIC  REGULATIONS 


125 


tion  of  traffic  described  as  turbinal  or  like  a  turbine,  for 
there  is  no  traffic  directly  across  the  square  at  any  point. 
All  the  streets  running  into  the  square  have  the  advantage 
of  architectural  focal  points,  and  traffic  through  them  is 
readily  distributed  in  the  square  without  undue  congestion 
at  any  one  point. 

An  open  space  of  such  an  oblong  character  proves  highly 
desirable  as  an  approach  to  a  large  building,  while  the  build- 


rX*   AJ^HONDl^^EMEJJT 


Fig.  36.   plan  showing  underground  street  crossing  for 
pedestrians  at  a  center  of  congested  traffic 

ing  in  turn  gives  effect  to  the  square,  since  proper  distance 
is  afforded  whereby  the  building  may  be  viewed,  which, 
if  had  in  a  space  of  circular  form  or  square  form,  would  be 
likely  to  make  the  square  too  large  in  area. 

Where  traffic  is  heavy  and  a  square  of  large  extent  is 
desired,  the  circular  form  may  be  employed  with  streets 
leading  into  it  in  the  form  of  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  Such 
a  space  if  surrounded  by  an  outer  concentric  circular  street 
may  be  designed  to  handle  a  very  large  traffic,  as  much  of 
the  traffic  is  diverted  by  the  outer  street  and  never  enters 
the  inner  circle.      A  circular  space  is  open  to  the  objection 


126  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

that  the  surrounding  structures  have  an  inconvenient  facade 
line  and  pedestrian  traffic  must  walk  around  or  risk  the 
traffic,  which  converging  from  so  many  directions  is  con- 
fusing and  dangerous. 

This  form  of  traffic  center  may  be  expanded  with  advan- 
tage in  some  cases  by  making  the  outer  street  one  of  great 
width,  in  fact  a  large  ring,  with  the  central  portion  occu- 
pied by  monumental  buildings  instead  of  being  an  open 
space. 

An  oblong  form  of  square,  with  semi-circular  ends  and 
parallel  sides,  has  many  of  the  advantages  of  the  rectangular 
form. 

An  open  square  which  is  an  exact  square  in  shape  is  not 
particularly  desirable,  as  its  uniformity  and  severity  are 
destructive  of  interesting  efTects  and  from  a  traffic  point  of 
view  it  has  no  particular  advantage,  especially  if  it  is 
entered  by  streets  from  the  middle  of  the  sides.  Such  a 
square,  however,  if  entered  by  streets  only  at  the  corners  is 
likely  to  be  more  effective,  particularly  if  only  one  street 
enters  at  the  corner  and  not  two  approaching  at  an  angle, 
as  the  entrance  of  two  streets  so  opens  the  corner  of  the 
square  as  to  destroy  the  effect  of  individuality  and  en- 
closure. The  corner  of  a  square  at  which  a  street  enters 
may  often  be  improved  by  closing  the  corner  with  buildings, 
leaving  an  arched  opening  for  the  street. 

Squares  should  not  be  too  small  in  size  or  too  large, 
although  there  is  small  danger  of  their  being  made  too  large. 
Sitte  recommends  that  an  oblong  square  should  be  as  wide 
as  the  height  of  the  principal  structure  facing  it  and  twice 
as  long,  a  rule  which  has  much  to  recommend  it. 

Various  considerations  will  determine  the  size  of  a 
square  but  it  should  always  be  made  of  sufficient  size. 

For  example,  the  Place  de  la  Nation,  Paris,  is  a  circle 
which  has  a  diameter  from  building  line  to  building  line  of 
825  feet,  but  this  is  a  place  having  an  outer  ring  street 
which  is  included  in  the  dimension.  The  inner  ring  street 
is  80  feet  in  width.  The  principal  thoroughfares  enter  the 
square. 


AUGUSTUS    SQUARE    WITH    MENDE    FOUNTAIN    AND    NEW    THEATER, 

LEIPZIG 


PLAZA    DEL    POPOLO    DAL    PINCIO,    ROME 
A  well  located  and  ejjective  focal  point  with  67.  Peter's  in  the  distance 


FRIEDRICH  S    PLAZA,    MANNHEIM 
Showinf/   ornanirnlnl   water   tower    and  fountains 


FRANZENS    RING,    VIENNA 
Jiistiee    Palace,     L'niversity    and    ^'otive    Church 


SQUARES   AND   TRAFFIC   REGULATIONS  127 

The  Place  de  la  Republic  is  an  irregular  rectangle  350 
feet  wide  and  975  feet  long  from  building  line  to  building 
line,  with  three  thoroughfares  entering  at  one  end,  two  at  the 
other  and  one  on  each  side,  with  five  minor  streets  entering 
at  the  points  of  juncture  of  the  principal  streets. 

The  Place  Royale,  Paris,  is  exactly  square  in  plan,  455 
feet  on  a  side,  with  streets  entering  at  sides,  and  was  laid 
out  by  Henry  IV  in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

In  its  design  as  a  point  of  intersection  and  distribution 
of  trafTic,  an  open  space  should  be  closely  adapted  to  the 
uses  to  which  it  is  to  be  put.  The  arrangement  of  entering 
streets  and  the  intersections  of  car  tracks  and  lines  of  traffic 
should  be  such  as  to  automatically  reduce  transportation  to 
the  simplest  possible  movements  and  the  fewest  number  of 
intersections.  It  should  also  be  designed  so  that  trafTic 
regulations  may  be  effected  with  the  least  resistance. 

The  degree  of  confusion  which  may  arise  in  traffic  con- 
verging into  a  square  may  be  appreciated  by  noting  the 
number  of  points  of  intersections.  Where  two  streets  cross 
at  right  angles  with  a  line  of  traffic  on  each  side  of  each 
street,  four  points  of  intersection  exist  for  vehicles  which 
continue  in  a  straight  line,  but  if  the  vehicles  may  turn 
the  corners  in  the  most  direct  manner,  there  are  sixteen 
points  of  intersection,  or  points  at  which  collisions  might 
occur.  But  if  instead  of  four  streets  thus  branching,  five 
branch  off  from  a  single  point,  fifty  points  of  intersection  are 
produced,  while  if  six  streets  branch  off,  produced  by  the 
intersection  at  a  single  point  of  three  streets  crossing,  one 
hundred  and  twenty  points  of  intersection  occur. 

Consequently,  any  large  volume  of  traffic  unregulated  in 
such  a  square  would  be  in  a  constant  state  of  confusion. 

The  most  effective  method  of  regulation  is  that  which 
requires  all  vehicles,  on  entering  the  square,  to  turn  to  the 
right,  and  continue,  not  across,  but  around  the  square  to 
the  street  where  they  leave,  even  if  this  compels  an  almost 
complete  traversing  of  the  whole  periphery.  This  method 
avoids  all  intersections  and  produces  the  turbinal  form  of 
traffic   circulation,   which  was  produced   to   a  large   extent 


128 


CITY   PLANNING   AND   MAINTENANCE 


Fig.  37.   proposed  design  for  a  super-imposed  street  intersection 
A  Plan  which  should  prove  of  great  service  to  many  American  cities 


SQUARES   AND   TRAFFIC   REGULATIONS  129 

automatically  in  cities  of  earlier  times  by  the  tangental 
entrance  of  streets  as  described. 

It  is  often  undesirable  to  place  a  large  monument  in  the 
center  of  a  square,  or  to  encumber  the  open  space  with 
trees,  high  ornamental  fences  or  shrubbery,  and  it  is  usually 
more  desirable  to  place  the  monument  at  the  end  of  the 
square  where  it  will  not  obstruct  the  vision  of  those  crossing 
and  where  it  may  be  viewed  to  better  advantage.  It 
should  be  so  placed  that  it  will  serve  as  a  focal  point  of 
converging  streets  and  thus  be  utilized  to  produce  the 
most  favorable  effects.  Minor  obstructions  in  the  line  of 
traffic  should  be  avoided. 

In  order  to  deflect  traffic  into  the  most  desirable  chan- 
nels, low  safety  isles  should  be  built.  A  height  of  curbing 
of  four  inches  will  usually  be  sufficient,  and  this  will  not 
prove  an  impediment  to  pedestrian  traffic. 

Transportation  Terminal  Spaces  should  be  roomy  and 
so  laid  out  that  the  traveller  may,  at  a  glance,  find  his  way 
to  the  various  means  of  local  transit,  with  no  confusion  or 
the  asking  of  questions. 

Street  car  lines  should  approach  the  station  in  such  a 
way  as  to  afford  the  greatest  facilities  and  convenience,  and 
cab,  bus  and  baggage  wagon  lines  should  be  placed  so  as 
not  to  interfere  with  other  traffic  and  yet  to  be  easily 
accessible. 

Cities  should  approve  the  design  of  railroad  stations,  and 
so  arrange  the  approach  of  local  transit  facilities  that  the 
enormously  long  walks  so  often  encountered,  as  noted,  in 
reaching  trains,  may  be  obviated. 

The  considerations  that  govern  railroad  stations  are 
equally  important  for  docks  and  landing  piers,  which  are 
too  often  placed  in  the  most  inconvenient  locations. 

An  effective  arrangement  for  the  approach  of  a  railroad 
station  which  affords  both  ample  traffic  facifities  and  a 
proper  perspective  for  the  structure,  is  that  of  a  semi- 
circular forecourt  or  space  into  which  the  transportation 
lines  run  and  around  which  the  cab  stands  are  placed. 
German  railroad  stations  afford  many  examples  of  effective. 


130 


CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 


arrangements,   which  may   be   studied  with   advantage  by 
civic  designers. 

Market  squares  are  an  essential  part  of  a  city's  design, 
for  they  afford  a  meeting  place  for  the  consumer  and  the 
small  country  producer.  In  former  years  such  open  market 
squares  were  much  more  in  evidence  in  American  cities  than 
at  present,  but  with  the  increase  in  prosperity,  the  conven- 
ience of  the  corner  grocery  caused  their  decline.     Now  that 


CeNTi^fli- 


Figs.  38  and  39.   traffic  regulation  at  columbus  circle, 

NEW   YORK 

Left  Hand  Figure  showing  Course  of  Vehicles;   Right  Hand  that  of  Street  Railways. 
Circle  of  dots  shows  position  of  portable  rope  holders 

the  high  cost  of  living  necessitates  the  closest  domestic 
economies,  their  value  is  better  appreciated  and  they  are 
growing  rapidly  in  favor. 

Such  squares  should  be  placed  in  proximity  to  the  resi- 
dential districts  whose  inhabitants  require  marketing  facil- 
ities, and  at  the  same  time  as  conveniently  as  possible  to 
main  thoroughfares  and  railroad  depots.  Markets  for  staple 
products  may  be  arranged  in  open  spaces  with  wagons  in 
rows,  or  protected  under  open  sheds,  while  market  houses 
should  be  provided  for  more  perishable  products.  The 
staple  markets  may  be  open  only  twice  or  three  times  a 
week,  though  the  market  houses  should  be  open  daily. 

Market  houses  which  are  placed  in  blocks  should  have  an 
inner  court  for  delivery  wagons,  so  that  the  streets  will  not 
be  blocked  up. 


SQUARES  AND   TRAFFIC   REGULATIONS  131 

Public  meeting  places  should  be  provided  for  political  and 
other  public  meetings.  These  should  be  open  spaces,  not 
devoted  to  park  purposes  but  adapted  for  large  assemblies, 
thus  keeping  bodies,  such  as  strikers  or  others,  away  from 
points  where  disturbances  are  Hkely  to  be  created. 

Such  meeting  places  afTord  facilities  for  the  congregation 
of  the  public  on  necessary  occasions  to  listen  to  addresses 
and  review  parades.  Permanent  grandstands  may  be  in- 
corporated. Such  squares  would  also  serve  as  breathing 
places,  and  as  playgrounds  for  certain  games  for  children. 
They  could  also  be  provided  with  band  stands  for  public 
concerts. 

Abroad  such  public  squares  are  often  occupied  on  Sunday 
for  a  half  an  hour  or  an  hour  at  noon  after  church  services 
are  over  by  military  bands,  at  the  change  of  guard,  for  con- 
certs, the  public  promenading  through  the  square  to  the 
strains  of  the  music,  which  adds  to  the  attraction  of  the  day. 

Such  squares  as  well  as  those  around  churches  and  most 
other  open  squares  are  surrounded  by  fine  residences,  so  that 
the  most  effective  architectural  setting  is  provided. 

The  appearance  of  a  city  may  be  greatly  embellished  by 
the  proper  treatment  of  small  spaces  and  odd  corners  such  as 
are  often  produced  in  the  city's  plan  by  large  improvements. 

Such  spaces  may  be  made  ornamental  by  the  placing  of 
monuments,  small  structures,  fountains,  geysers,  tasteful 
kiosks  and  advertising  columns.  They  may  also  be  filled 
with  flower  beds,  shrubbery,  or  small  trees,  and  utilized  for 
structures  of  a  convenient  nature,  such  as  well-designed 
news  stands,  lunch  counters,  milk  stations,  meteorological  col- 
umns, underground  public  comfort  stations,  and  street  car 
transfer  shelters. 

Most  public  buildings  in  American  cities,  though  often 
imposing  in  themselves,  are  as  a  rule  placed  in  locations  of 
little  advantage.  Enormous  sums  of  money  are  spent  in  the 
buildings,  but  the  approaches  are  such  as  to  seriously  detract 
from  their  effects.  In  many  cases  a  much  better  effect  would 
have  been  produced  had  the  structures  been  boldly  placed 
directly  in  and  across  the  street,  or  covering  the  intersections 


132 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


of  streets,  thus  breaking  up  the  monotony  of  long  stretches  and 
affording  striking  focal  points,  sufficient  space  being  left  sur- 
rounding the  structure  for  approaches  and  traffic. 

An  example  of  a  great  building  badly  placed  is  that  of  the 
New  York  Public  Library  on  Fifth  Avenue  between  Fortieth 
and  Forty-second  Streets.  Had  the  building  been  placed  in 
the  middle  of  the  rectangle  which  its  site  forms  with  Bryant 
Square  at  the  rear,  instead  of  so  near  Fifth  Avenue,  a  vastly 
more  effective  result  would  have  been  achieved  and  the  front 


C^MTv 


Oilt7n.ilumitin^ 


%s  uv^^^ 


■7  a  7h.  dusoir  A/ 


Figs.  40  and  41.   signs  for  one-way  traffic  streets  used  in  paris 

would  have  had  the  approach  which  the  rear  of  the  building 
now  enjoys,  but  which  serves  no  useful  purpose. 

Another  building  badly  placed  is  the  New  York  Post 
Office  building  on  Eighth  Avenue  between  Thirty-first  and 
Thirty-third  Streets,  which  though  it  has  a  facade  of  great 
magnificence,  enjoys  nothing  but  an  outlook  upon  the  rear  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Station.  Had  the  latter  been  properly 
designed  in  co-ordination  with  the  Post  Office,  a  place  of 
great  effect  would  have  resulted.  Both  of  these  buildings 
are  badly  located  and  their  architectural  grandeur  is  dimin- 
ished by  the  surroundings  and  approaches.  Had  this  station 
been  placed  on  Park  Avenue,  within  a  few  blocks  of  Grand 
Central  Station,  and  connected  with  a  concourse,  a  great 
traffic  center  would  have  been  developed  and  the  entire 
group  of  buildings  would  have  supported  each  other,  besides 
being  more  centrally  located  and  more  convenient  for  the 
public. 

Such  disregard  of  civic  improvement  is  chargeable  to  the 
city  administration,  which  should  not  permit  any  develop- 
ments out  of  harmony  with  its  general  plan. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PARK  SYSTEMS 

Location  of  Parks;  Small,  Central  and  Rural  Parks;  Floral 
Parks  and  Gardens;  Communal  Ownership  Parks; 
Athletic  and  Play  Grounds 

American  cities,  as  a  rule,  are  not  sufficiently  appre- 
ciative of  the  necessity  and  desirability  of  adequate  park 
systems.  They  are  usually  satisfied  with  a  few  meagre,  dust- 
covered  squares,  scattered  in  the  business  section,  and  cer- 
tain large  acreages  in  inaccessible  locations,  principally  useful 
for  athletic  and  picnic  parties. 

The  park  system  of  a  city,  however,  should  receive  the 
same  care  and  attention  in  its  design  and  execution  as  is 
given  to  the  civic  centers  and  other  portions  of  the  city.  It 
should  be  laid  out  in  a  broad  spirit  and  with  liberality,  and 
space  should  not  be  spared.  In  the  growth  of  a  city,  a 
thousand  excuses  will  be  advanced  for  encroachments  on 
parks,  and  should  they  be  found  to  be  planned  on  too  large  a 
scale,  it  will  always  be  found  easy  to  reduce  their  size,  while 
increases  can  never  be  accomplished  except  at  large  ex- 
pense. 

There  is,  however,  small  danger  of  planning  parks  on  too 
large  a  scale,  and  there  are  few  if  any  instances  of  cities  ever 
having  reduced  the  sizes  of  parks,  once  laid  out.  At  one 
time,  there  was  considerable  criticism  of  the  size  of  Central 
Park  in  New  York,  which  is  two  and  one  half  miles  long 
and  half  a  mile  wide,  but  to-day  even  the  proposal  to  erect 
in  it  a  building  of  the  most  artistic  character  is  vigorously 
opposed  and  pubHc  opinion  would  not  countenance  the 
slightest  reduction  in  its  area. 

The  park  system  of  a  city  should  be  laid  out  in  a  sys- 
tematic manner  and  should  consist  of  parks  of  varying  sizes 


134  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

and  design,  each  more  or  less  particularly  adapted  for  certain 
purposes. 

In  a  general  way,  the  parks  should  increase  in  size  with 
the  increase  in  distance  from  the  business  center,  and  there 
should  be  four  or  five  classes  of  parks. 

Those  of  the  smallest  class  should  be  located  in  the  most 
congested  portions  of  the  city,  to  relieve  the  pressure  of 
business,  but  they  should  not  be  so  large  as  to  have  a  dis- 
organizing effect  or  cause  undue  inconvenience  to  traffic  and 
the  despatch  of  business. 

Parks  of  the  next  largest  size  should  be  in  the  crowded 
residential  and  tenement  districts,  and  they  may  be  of  vary- 
ing sizes,  from  one  to  four  blocks  or  more  in  area. 

Parks  of  the  third  class  should  be  located  on  the  out- 
skirts of  the  residential  portions  and  may  be  of  large  extent, 
from  twenty  to  several  hundred  acres  in  extent.  These 
should  be  the  principal  parks  of  the  city  and  should  be  con- 
nected by  boulevards  and  parkways. 

The  fourth  and  largest  group  of  parks  may  properly  con- 
sist of  large  undeveloped  areas  of  land,  purchased  by  the 
city  and  rented  out  partially,  for  farming  uses  and  partially 
held  as  forests,  from  which  the  wood  may  be  cut  and  sold  in 
such  quantities  as  will  not  deplete  its  growth. 

From  lands  such  as  these,  cities  in  Germany  and  other 
European  countries  derive  large  and  increasing  revenues, 
while  portions  of  the  land  may  be  sold  from  time  to  time  as 
the  city  grows. 

For  example,  the  city  of  Berlin  has  been  laid  out  and  its 
development  planned  up  to  the  year  2000,  when  it  is  esti- 
mated the  city  will  have  10,000,000  inhabitants. 

Berlin  has  a  population  now  of  4,000,000,  being  the 
third  largest  city  in  the  world.  Before  its  suburbs,  the  prin- 
cipal of  which  are  Charlottenburg,  Schoneberg,  Rixdorf  and 
Wilmersdorf,  were  incorporated  with  it,  its  population  was 
2,091,000  and  the  area  of  its  parks  was  as  fofiows: 

Nine  parks,  covering  776  acres;  147  small  decorative 
plats,  254  acres;  3  tree  nurseries,  42  acres;  1  school  garden, 
74  acres;   a  total  of  1,146  acres. 


BRANDERBURGER    GATE,    BERLIN 

Focal  point  at  the  junction   of  the    Tierr/ar/cn   and    i'nlcr   den   Linden 


AVENUE    OK    VICTORY,    BERLIN 

Flanked  on  both  sides  hi/  thirtti-two  marhle  statues  of  Prussian  rulers 


THE    GRAND    TERRACE,    SANSSOUCI,    POTSDAM 
Erected  bij  Frederick  the  Great 


THE    WILHELMA,    CANSTADT 
A  hall  in  Moorish  style  with  highhj  formal  floral  gardens 


PARK   SYSTEMS  135 

Trees  are  planted  on  296  streets  of  a  combined  length  of 
106  miles.  Around  the  trees  are  262  garden  plots  having  an 
aggregate  area  of  237  acres.  For  children's  playgrounds 
there  are  99  acres  of  grass  plots,  ranging  from  l^  to  17  acres 
each,  75  acres  of  other  plots  ranging  from  360  square  yards 
to  2|  acres  each,  and  66  "sand  piles,"  ranging  from  25  to 
950  square  yards  each  (aggregate  area  about  173  acres). 
The  sand  piles  are  provided  with  56  play  tables  and  18 
shelter  roofs. 

The  park  area  of  Charlottenburg  (population  309,400) 
on  March  31,  1912,  was  618  acres.  The  total  area  of  the 
city  on  the  same  date  was  5,790  acres.  In  addition  to  its 
parks  proper  the  city  maintains  four  tree  nurseries  in  which 
174,000  young  trees  were  growing  at  the  end  of  March,  1912. 
At  the  same  time  the  municipal  greenhouses  contained  87,- 
885  flowering  plants,  1,399  palms,  and  2,408  decorative 
plants  of  an  aggregate  value  of  $10,460.  In  the  course  of 
the  year  456,643  plants  worth  $27,000  were  used  in  the 
parks,  in  the  street  boulevarding,  and  about  schools,  hospi- 
tals, etc. 

Berlin-Schoneberg  possesses  its  own  municipal  gardens, 
covering  50,000  square  yards,  and  when  entirely  completed 
will  embrace  11  greenhouses,  125  hotbeds,  a  botanical  section 
for  providing  schools  with  demonstration  specimens,  and  a 
municipal  tree  nursery. 

On  the  average  300,000  plants,  including  about  50,000 
bulbs,  are  used  each  year  for  setting  out  in  the  city  flower 
beds.  The  park  commission's  budget  for  the  fiscal  year  1913- 
14  amounts  to  $72,195. 

Other  cities  in  Germany  derive  large  revenues  from  their 
lands,  some  owning  from  10,000  to  40,000  acres  in  the  city 
limits.  Some  of  the  German  cities,  instead  of  collecting 
taxes,  pay  their  citizens  dividends  each  year,  out  of  the 
profits  derived  from  lands  and  public  utilities  owned. 

The  system  of  parks  should  thus  be  laid  out  in  the  most 
comprehensive  manner  and  with  a  long  view  into  the  future, 
and  the  city  should  not  hesitate  to  acquire  ample  lands  for 
all  possible  park  purposes,  since  such  lands  near  a  growing 


136  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

city  will  never  decrease  in  value  and  are  bound  to  prove  large 
sources  of  revenue  in  one  form  or  another. 

In  the  planning  of  a  park  system,  many  important  con- 
siderations must  be  taken  into  account,  among  which  are,  in 
addition  to  the  ample  sizing  of  the  parks,  their  number,  their 
proper  locations,  the  nature  of  the  land  to  be  utilized,  their 
organization  into  a  system,  their  relation  to  waterways  and 
boulevards,  the  purposes  for  which  they  are  to  be  utilized, 
their  environment,  their  accessibihty  and  their  internal 
design. 

The  latter  depends  on  size,  location  and  uses,  and  may 
be  either  of  a  formal  or  a  rural  character  or  a  composite. 

The  number  of  the  parks  of  a  city  should  be  large, 
particularly  as  regards  the  smaller  parks,  and  an  important 
principle  of  park  design  is  to  have  the  number  and  location 
such  that  every  portion  of  the  city  is  within  easy  walking 
distance  of  at  least  a  small  park. 

In  location,  parks  should  be  so  placed  as  to  be  part  of  a 
system,  and  not  merely  set  down  at  haphazard  and  wherever 
room  may  be  made.  They  afford  excellent  terminal  points 
for  streets  and  avenues,  and  when  organized  into  a  proper 
system  add  unity  and  variety  to  a  city's  plan. 

The  larger  parks  should,  as  noted,  be  connected  by 
boulevards,  and  may  often  have  waterway  connections, 
either  for  pleasure  purposes  or  commercial  use.  Commercial 
waterways,  indeed,  should  usually  be  laid  out  with  grass 
plots  and  lined  with  boulevards,  as  is  frequently  done  abroad. 

Land  best  adapted  for  park  purposes  is  often  of  the 
smallest  value  for  other  purposes.  Steep  hills,  cliffs  or  rock 
formations,  swamps,  ponds,  lakes  and  streams  render  land 
expensive  of  utilization  for  building  purposes,  but  supply  the 
natural  features  most  easily  transformed  into  interesting  parks. 

A  striking  example  of  the  use  of  cliffs  and  steep  hills  for 
park  purposes  is  seen  in  Morningside  Park  and  Mount  Morris 
Park  in  New  York.  Morningside  Park  is  a  long,  high  cliff 
or  bluff,  largely  covered  with  trees,  vines  and  other  vegeta- 
tion, while  Mount  Morris  Park  contains  a  steep,  round  hill. 
Both  are  popular  parks. 


PARK   SYSTEMS 


137 


lUwoPB 
llPABK 

li 


Fig.  42.    plan  of  kansas  city  showing  park  and  boulevard  system 


138  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Small  parks  in  congested  regions  are  properly  of  the 
greatest  variety,  ranging  from  those  of  a  formal  nature  to 
open  spaces  with  little  or  no  vegetation  or  children's  play- 
grounds fitted  with  swings  and  other  apparatus  for  play. 

The  environment  of  parks  is  also  a  determining  factor  in 
their  design.  It  is  the  custom  to  a  large  extent  in  European 
cities  to  place  public  buildings  adjacent  to  parks,  thus  afford- 
ing distance  for  the  viewing  of  the  buildings,  and  determining 
for  such  parks  the  nature  of  their  design.  Parks  not  so  sur- 
rounded by  features  of  architectural  interest  will  be  of  a 
different  design. 

Small  parks,  squares  and  playgrounds  should  always  be 
constructed  so  that  each  has  its  own  individuaUty.  This 
may  be  attained  by  different  forms  of  architecture  and  land- 
scape treatment,  by  bodies  of  water,  fountains,  statues, 
sunken  gardens,  terraces  and  other  forms  of  construction  and 
embellishment.  Many  such  small  squares  in  European  cities 
gain  in  effect  through  being  almost  wholly  enclosed,  being 
penetrated  by  streets  in  only  one  or  two  places  and  not  at 
the  corners,  where  the  buildings  meet.  The  intimate  effect 
of  a  large  court  is  thus  gained,  which  gives  an  unusual 
degree  of  individuality  to  the  square. 

In  addition  to  the  small  public  parks  of  a  city  abroad, 
are  often  found  numerous  small  private  gardens,  which 
though  not  open  to  the  public  are  interesting  features  of  the 
townscape. 

Such  private  gardens  are  numerous  in  Moscow,  where, 
however,  they  are  mostly  surrounded  by  high  walls,  and  are 
thus  of  less  interest  than  when  without  such  enclosures. 

Gramercy  Park,  which  occupies  a  small  block  in  the  old 
Knickerbocker  section  of  the  city  of  New  York,  is  a  unique 
example  of  a  private  park,  as  the  land  belongs  in  common  to 
the  owners  of  the  surrounding  houses,  and  the  park  is  not 
open  to  the  public,  being  protected  by  a  high  iron  fence. 
Access  is  had  by  keys  belonging  to  the  householders,  and  a 
certain  sum  is  assessed  against  the  property  owners  by  the 
committee  in  charge,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  park. 
Though  small,  this  park  has  been  a  strong  factor  in  the 


PARK  SYSTEMS  139 

deflection  of  the  business  invasion  from  this  section  of  the 
city,  and  has  enhanced  the  value  of  the  surrounding  property 
perhaps,  in  the  case  of  each  plot,  to  more  than  its  own  origi- 
nal cost. 

It  is  a  form  of  park  which  could  be  adopted  with  ad- 
vantage by  property  owners  in  residential  sections  of  many 
cities,  since  the  element  of  exclusiveness  adds  greatly  to  its 
value. 

Small  parks  may  be  either  of  a  strictly  formal  nature,  or 
laid  out  on  a  more  or  less  rural  plan,  with  cascades,  flower 
beds  and  an  abundance  of  trees.  Running  water  is  always  a 
feature  of  interest,  but  stagnant  water  should  not  be  per- 
mitted, being  a  breeding  place  for  mosquitoes  which  are 
likely  to  become  a  great  nuisance. 

Where  the  population  is  congested,  as  in  tenement 
districts,  a  considerable  portion  of  the  small  parks  may  be 
devoted  to  playgrounds  with  apparatus  of  different  kinds, 
such  as  swings,  see-saws,  parallel  bars  and  the  like,  for  the 
use  of  children  at  play,  not  omitting  shallow  wading  pools, 
sand  piles  and  artificial  cascades.  Such  parks  thus  have  the 
greatest  possible  degree  of  usefulness. 

In  large  cities,  one  of  the  drawbacks  to  parks  consists  of 
the  large  number  of  men  out  of  employment  and  frequently 
of  a  trampish  nature  who  lounge  and  doze  on  the  park 
benches  during  both  the  day  and  the  night,  making  the 
parks  unattractive  to  the  other  visitors.  Such  men,  having 
nowhere  else  to  go,  cannot  be  kept  out  of  the  parks. 

In  order  to  clear  the  parks  of  them,  a  plan  might  be  tried 
of  erecting  free  barracks  in  certain  portions  of  parks  or  on 
vacant  lots,  such  barracks  being  merely  open  sheds,  screened 
by  hedges,  and  fitted  with  slatted  wooden  bunks  in  tiers; 
at  the  end  of  the  bunk,  a  wooden  form  for  a  pillow,  the 
wayfarer  folding  his  coat  for  the  purpose.  Here  he  could 
snooze  the  whole  summer  long  without  making  himself  an 
eyesore  to  the  public.  The  comforts  of  such  a  bunk  would 
not  be  so  great  as  to  encourage  the  profession  of  tramping, 
while  many  a  man  out  of  work  would  be  weU  served  with  a 
night's  rest  free.     During  the  day,  the  shade  and  free  cir- 


140  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

culation  of  air  would  invite  the  leisure  class  in  from  the 
park  benches,  where  they  would  be  much  better  subject  to 
police  regulation  and  control.  Should  the  guests  of  the  free 
barracks  demand  it,  a  safe  might  be  provided  for  the  storage 
of  valuables,  though  this  is  a  detail  which  may  be  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  future. 

Such  barracks  should  be  low  structures  and  might  be  in 
rows,  with  the  sheds  in  the  form  of  gable  roofs,  a  tier  of 
bunks  on  either  side  of  the  central  partition.  Attendants  in 
the  parks  seeing  loungers  of  a  certain  class  would  direct 
them  to  the  barracks,  where,  however,  they  would  be  likely 
to  gravitate  of  their  own  account.  The  barracks,  being 
screened  on  all  sides  with  hedges,  would  afford  the  loungers 
not  only  a  place  in  which  to  stow  themselves  away,  perhaps 
on  occasions  for  the  last  time,  but  would  serve  as  orna- 
mental features  of  the  park  landscape,  for  if  placed  on  the 
sides  of  small  parks,  shutting  off  the  view  of  the  street,  or  in 
corners  in  clumps  of  trees,  a  more  individual  effect  would  be 
given  the  park. 

Most  large  foreign  cities  are  abundantly  supplied  with 
small  parks.  Berlin  has  a  large  number,  as  has  Vienna,  but 
in  the  latter  city  there  is  an  arrangement  known  as  the 
"Ring"  which  adds  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  parks.  Dres- 
den and  Stockholm  also  have  a  large  number  of  small  parks. 

In  some  foreign  cities,  there  are  large  spacious  squares, 
which  though  without  grass,  shrubbery  or  trees,  still  have, 
to  a  certain  extent,  the  effect  of  parks,  being  embellished 
with  fountains,  obelisks,  monuments,  electroliers,  etc. 

The  Place  de  la  Concorde,  Paris,  which,  however,  is 
bounded  on  two  sides  by  parks,  is  one  of  the  squares  of  this 
type,  while  others  are  the  Raadhus-Plads  in  Copenhagen,  the 
eastern  end  of  Unter  den  Linden  in  Berlin,  the  Dam  in 
Amsterdam,  and  the  Place  de  I'Hotel  de  Ville  in  Paris, 
Owing  to  the  traffic  passing  through  them,  they  are  neces- 
sarily open. 

If  the  space,  however,  is  too  large,  it  has  the  effect  of 
dwarfing  the  surrounding  buildings.  Such  squares  are  found 
in  Moscow  and  St.  Petersburg  in  the  Place  Dvortsory,  the 


PALM    GARDEN,    FRANKKOKT-ON-THE-MAIN 
A  semi-rural  effect  is  secured  bij  absence  of  railings  and  pavements 


CONCERT    SALON    OF    THE    GARDEN    SOCIETY,    GOTENBURG 
A  typical  example  of  a  building  and  grounds  designed  for  concerts,  recreation  and  re- 
freshments at  small  expense 


PARK   SYSTEMS  141 

Place  Krasnaia  and  the  Place  des  Theatres,  which  are 
merely  large  open  spaces  paved  with  cobblestones.  While 
these  spaces  could  have  been  laid  out  as  parks  with  trees 
and  grass  plots,  it  may  be  that  they  have  remained  as  open 
spaces  for  possible  mihtary  operations. 

Among  the  locations  for  parks  which  usually  offer  good 
opportunities  for  interesting  effects  are  those  along  rivers 
and  on  islands.  Cemeteries,  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  part 
of  the  park  system  of  a  city,  and  they  should  be  planned 
accordingly.  It  often  happens  that  the  cemetery  of  to-day 
is  the  park  of  subsequent  generations.  In  New  York,  for 
example,  two  potter's  fields  of  by-gone  days  are  now  among 
the  most  valuable  of  the  city's  parks. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  of  a  park  system  is 
accessibility.  The  greatest  attention  should  be  paid  to  so 
arranging  the  parks  and  transportation  lines  that  the  public 
may  be  provided  with  quick,  cheap  and  convenient  means  of 
getting  to  the  parks,  for  otherwise  they  lose  the  greater  part 
of  their  usefulness. 

Every  city  should  have  at  least  one  large  park  within 
easy  walking  distance  of  a  considerable  part  of  its  popula- 
tion, and  its  other  parks  should  be  within  easy  reach  by 
surface  or  other  lines  of  transportation  at  a  single  fare. 
River  and  island  parks  should  be  reached  by  bridges  or  by 
boats  operated  by  the  city.  If  transportation  facilities  to 
the  parks  are  not  ample  they  should  quickly  be  made  so. 
The  greater  part  of  a  city's  population  labors  six  days  a 
week,  with  but  few  opportunities  of  recreation  other  than  on 
the  seventh  day,  so  that  every  effort  should  be  made  to 
afford,  on  that  day,  all  possible  facilities  for  the  needed 
recreation. 

In  character,  the  parks  of  a  city  should  be  varied,  those 
of  small  size,  surrounded  by  buildings  of  architectural  in- 
terest, as  has  been  noted,  should  be  of  a  more  formal  char- 
acter, that  is,  laid  out  on  a  regular  plan,  with  walks,  terraces, 
avenues,  lakes,  fountains,  flower  beds,  statuar^%  ornamental 
electroliers  and  other  features  of  a  similar  sort,  than  those 
situated  in  more  distant  portions  of  the  city.    The  latter 


142  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

should  preferably  be  of  a  more  rural  character,  primeval  and 
undisturbed  in  general  effect. 

The  main  park  of  the  city  may  partake  of  both  these 
characteristics,  portions  being  adapted  for  one  purpose  and 
portions  for  another. 

Appealing  to  a  large  class  of  users,  it  should  therefore 
contain  a  number  of  features  calculated  to  make  it  an  in- 
teresting place  of  recreation. 

The  entrances  to  such  a  park  may  be  of  a  monumental 
character  and  there  may  be  in  it  a  central  mall,  laid  out  in 
a  formal  manner  and  flanked  with  statues.  Promenades  and 
walks,  large  flower  beds,  botanical  gardens,  zoological  gar- 
dens, lakes,  with  aquatic  birds,  facilities  for  rowing  in 
summer  and  for  skating  in  winter;  artificial  geysers,  small 
streams  and  rivers  with  artificial  falls,  rock  formations,  by- 
paths, music  stands,  summer  houses,  shelter  houses,  drinking 
fountains,  refreshment  stands,  concert  pavilions,  tennis  and 
croquet  grounds,  wading  pools  for  children,  playgrounds  with 
swings,  carousels  and  the  like,  sun-dials,  ornamental  bridges, 
free  singing  birds,  squirrels  and  other  small  animals,  drive- 
ways, bridle  paths,  reservoirs,  observation  towers,  decorative 
kiosks  and  other  features  all  go  to  make  such  a  park  attrac- 
tive to  visitors  of  all  classes. 

An  additional  feature,  which  is  very  popular  abroad, 
particularly  in  Germany  and  Austria,  and  which  could  be 
introduced  by  American  cities  in  their  parks,  though  until  its 
advantages  became  familiar,  it  would  probably  excite  some 
opposition,  is  that  of  concerts  to  which  an  admission  is 
charged. 

Such  concerts  are  given  by  orchestras  of  the  finest  musi- 
cians and  are  held  in  hedged  enclosures.  The  admission  fees 
serve  to  pay  a  large  part  of  the  expenses  of  the  park,  and 
also  to  exclude  the  rougher  element  of  park  visitors,  such  as 
young  rowdies  with  baseball  bats,  unruly  youngsters  and  the 
like. 

The  visitors  to  such  concerts  may  also  be  served  with 
refreshments,  and  between  numbers  of  the  program  may 
promenade  about.     Such  concerts  are  held  on  Sunday  during 


PARK   SYSTEMS  143 

the  afternoon  and  evening,  and  occasionally  during  the 
week,  and  many  visitors  remain  to  both  concerts.  Since  a 
restaurant,  serving  a  limited  menu,  is  run  in  connection  with 
the  concerts,  the  time  may  be  agreeably  spent.  The  meals 
are  served  in  the  open  air,  but  in  case  of  bad  weather  the 
concert  is  conducted  in  a  large  concert  hall  in  the  garden, 
in  which  the  meals  are  also  served.  In  the  evening  the 
whole  garden  is  illuminated  with  Chinese  lanterns  and 
electric  lamps,  which  add  to  the  picturesqueness  of  the 
scene. 

Another  feature  of  the  continental  park  system  which  is 
of  the  greatest  usefulness  and  which  undoubtedly  adds  to 
the  healthfulness  of  the  public  by  making  the  parks  and 
excursion  grounds  more  attractive,  is  that  of  having  on  sale, 
wherever  the  demand  may  exist,  adequate  supplies  of  good 
food  at  prices  to  suit  the  pocketbooks  of  all. 

It  is  entirely  unnecessary  to  take  baskets  and  boxes  of 
food  along,  except  where  the  most  remote  localities  are  to 
be  visited,  for  wherever  it  is  the  custom  for  visitors  to  go  on 
Sunday  or  in  the  evening,  whether  to  the  main  parks  of  the 
city  or  to  outlying  parks,  beaches  or  excursion  grounds, 
restaurants  will  be  found.  At  such  places,  if  the  visitor  be 
inclined,  bread,  meat,  beer,  cheese,  milk,  coffee  and  other 
simple  foods  of  the  best  quality  may  be  had  at  very  little 
more  than  city  prices,  and  are  purchasable  in  semi-bulk  form, 
much  as  if  the  purchases  were  made  at  a  city  delicatessen. 
A  whole  party  may  thus  obtain  all  the  edibles  they  require 
at  such  moderate  prices  that  the  carrying  of  lunch  baskets  is 
superfluous.  This  does  away  with  the  scattering  of  papers 
and  rubbish,  which  give  American  recreation  grounds  such 
an  unattractive  appearance.  For  those  who  have  more  to 
spend,  restaurants  of  a  more  elaborate  character  are  pro- 
vided, so  that  however  simple  or  reluctant  the  taste  of  the 
visitor,  he  may  find  adequate  means  of  satisfying  it  wherever 
he  goes.  Very  often  the  same  restaurant  supplies  on  differ- 
ent sides,  or  in  different  gardens,  both  the  elaborate  and  the 
simple  fare,  the  more  expensive  garden  usually  being  on  a 
par  with  the  best  city  restaurants. 


144 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


Only  the  smaller  and  more  remote  garden  or  park  restau- 
rants of  this  character  are  without  music,  while  all  the 
others  ofTer  exceptionally  good  music,  frequently  fine  military 
bands  of  reputation.  The  grounds  and  parks  in  which  such 
open-air  restaurants  are  placed,  are  so  laid  out  that  attrac- 
tive promenades  may  be  enjoyed  and  the  entire  day  may 
with  enjoyment  be  spent  in  such  a  locality. 


<•'•-.:  ^?':j^'i 

.--iv^^f^ 

- 

e      p      lo 


Fig.  43.    parks  and  boulevards  of  boston  (population  735,000) 

Compare  ivilh  the  uniformly  arranged  Parking  system  of  Berlin,  opposite 

Objections  may  be  offered  to  such  a  plan  as  this  as  not 
being  applicable  to  American  conditions,  owing  to  the  inclina- 
tion of  many  to  pretend  to  be  able  to  spend  more  than  they 
can  really  afford  to  on  a  holiday.  More  probably,  however, 
the  reason  why  such  open-air  restaurants  have  not  appeared 
is  that  their  proprietors  have  always  attempted  to  charge  all 
classes  of  visitors  on  a  high-class  basis,  and  the  average 
visitor  has  thus  learned  by  painful  experience  to  take  the 
lunch  box  along  or  stay  at  home. 


PARK   SYSTEMS 


145 


Classification  of  restaurant  prices,  however,  is  not  found 
objectionable  when  properly  applied.  In  many  of  the  best 
hotels,  the  same  food  served  in  the  restaurant,  grill  and  cafe 
commands  different  prices  in  each.  Properly  managed,  such 
classified  open-air  restaurants  would  prove  highly  popular, 
and  would  cause  parks  to  be  used  to  a  far  greater  extent 


Fig.  44.   parks  and  boulevards  of  greater  berlin 
(Population  4,000,000)  Scale  in  miles 

than  at  present,  thus  adding  materially  to  the  welfare  of  the 
public. 

The  city  should  erect  the  necessary  buildings,  plan  the 
parks  and  grounds  accordingly  and  lease  the  privileges  to 
competent  restaurateurs.  Such  buildings  are  also  of  use  in 
the  winter  as  well  as  in  the  summer,  when  skating  and 
sleighing  may  be  enjoyed,  and  restaurants  and  concerts 
patronized  as  well. 


146  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Among  the  edifices  which  may  properly  be  placed  in  the 
parks  are  municipal  banquet  halls.  In  such  halls,  the  vari- 
ous municipal  and  semi-municipal  functions  could  be  held, 
instead  of  in  the  hotels  as  at  present.  Distinguished  guests 
could  be  received  in  more  dignity  at  such  banquet  halls  than 
in  private  hostelries. 

Permanent  grandstands  of  a  limited  size  should  be 
erected  in  the  larger  cities,  where  parades  are  frequently 
held,  and  now  reviewed  from  temporary  stands.  Such  per- 
manent stands  could  be  constructed  in  terrace  form,  treated 
in  a  suitable  architectural  manner  and  located  at  a  focal 
point,  being  thus  suitable  for  reviewing  and  also  an  em- 
bellishment to  the  locality. 

Among  other  desirable  features  in  the  park  system  and 
administered  by  the  department  of  parks,  are  gymnasiums, 
athletic  fields,  comfort  stations,  shelter  houses,  recreation 
piers,  driveways  and  floral  decorations. 

Floral  parks  are  a  feature  of  the  park  systems  abroad 
practically  unknown  in  the  United  States.  Large  areas  are 
devoted  to  roses  and  other  flowers,  not  merely  in  the  form 
of  small  beds  as  is  so  often  seen  here,  but  in  great  pro- 
fusion. In  some  cities,  even,  as  at  Coburg,  Germany,  large 
areas  of  roses  are  cultivated,  serving  not  only  for  decorative 
purposes,  but  being  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  perfumery. 
At  Lyon  are  famous  rose  gardens  which  owe  their  excellence 
largely  to  a  light  soil,  an  abundance  of  sunshine,  and  the 
proper  amount  of  moisture.  From  time  immemorial  rosarians 
have  taken  advantage  of  the  favoring  conditions  until  skill  and 
interest  in  the  industry  have  made  the  roses  of  the  Rhone 
Valley  known  throughout  the  parks  and  gardens  of  the  world. 
Flower  beds  on  an  exceptionally  large  scale  are  seen  in  all  the 
parks  and  particularly  in  the  floral  parks  in  all  kinds  of  designs 
and  colors  schemes.  The  botanical  gardens  are  often  a  part 
of  such  systems.  Concerts  are  also  given  in  the  floral  parks 
and  ample  accommodations  for  refreshments  are  provided. 

As  Americans  are,  probably  more  than  any  other  people, 
devoted  to  sports,  spending  a  great  amount  of  time,  energy 
and  money  upon  its  various  branches,   and  not  only  par- 


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PARK  SYSTEMS  147 

ticipating  in  but  collecting  in  great  numbers  to  witness  the 
contests,  the  proper  treatment  of  this  form  of  recreation 
is  among  the  most  important  to  be  considered  in  planning 
public  parks  and  grounds. 

Each  city  should  have,  as  part  of  its  park  system,  a 
spacious  athletic  ground,  which  should  be  located  in  the 
suburbs  and  be  of  easy  access  by  rail,  trolley  and  highways. 
Wherever  possible,  such  ground  should  be  located  on  the 
water  as  such  locations  are  usually  superior  to  others,  being 
more  agreeable  and  affording  opportunities  for  design  not 
otherwise  found,  and  in  addition,  providing  for  aquatic 
sports  and  giving  opportunity  for  bathing  and  excursions 
by  boat. 

For  large  cities,  such  a  ground  should  contain  a  stadium, 
with  a  seating  capacity  of  from  25,000  to  75,000,  an  audi- 
torium with  a  seating  capacity  of  from  10,000  to  30,000, 
which  may  also  be  planned  to  accommodate  expositions 
lasting  a  month  or  more,  and  a  raised  or  sunken  colosseum 
seating  from  15,000  to  40,000. 

The  stadium  should  be  in  the  nature  of  an  athletic 
field,  and  be  used  for  football,  baseball,  aviation  meets, 
county  and  state  fairs,  horse  shows  and  the  like. 

The  auditorium  should  be  of  a  monumental  character, 
and  if  possible  located  on  a  bluff  or  cliff,  with  a  terrace 
down  to  the  water  gate,  also  of  monumental  design.  The 
aquatic  contests  could  thus  be  viewed  from  the  terrace. 

The  colosseum  should  be  designed  as  a  place  for  athletic 
events,  educational,  religious  and  general  open  air  assem- 
blages and  pageants.  A  portion  of  such  a  colosseum,  at 
one  end  of  the  oval,  may  be  utilized  for  open  air  theatrical 
performances. 

The  colosseum  is  preferably  sunken  rather  than  raised, 
as  in  the  latter  form  it  would  obstruct  the  general  view  and 
have  other  disadvantages.  The  sunken  colosseum  should 
be  bordered  with  trees  and  ornamented  with  electroliers. 
The  Colosseum  of  Rome  which  seated  87,000  was  512  by 
617  feet,  while  the  central  part  used  for  games  was  148  by 
282. 


148  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

If  properly  constructed,  the  sunken  stadium  could  be 
partially  filled  with  water,  either  for  swimming  events  in 
the  summer  or  skating  in  the  winter,  if  other  water  were  not 
available  for  this  purpose.  If  on  a  navigated  stream  or 
lake  front,  a  breakwater  might  be  erected  to  afford  a  skat- 
ing place  in  the  winter,  free  from  the  usual  rough  shore  ice. 

An  athletic  center  of  such  an  elaborate  character  would 
of  course  be  beyond  the  means  of  all  except  the  largest  cities, 
but  it  would  prove  highly  profitable  to  such  cities  not  only 
on  account  of  the  physical  and  mental  improvement  of  the 
participants,  but  also  on  account  of  the  great  number  of 
visitors  attracted. 

Owing  to  the  great  volume  of  traffic  to  be  handled  in 
the  rush  to  leave  the  grounds  after  games  were  over,  all 
possible  transit  facilities  should  be  utilized  and  the  most 
complete  accommodations  afforded,  as  otherwise  the  crowd- 
ing will  have  the  effect  of  reducing  the  number  of  visitors. 
Points  of  departure  should  be  placed  on  all  sides  of  the 
grounds  leading  to  centers  of  transportation  distribution 
in  the  city. 

There  are  many  other  features  of  the  park  system  of 
a  city  which  might  with  profit  be  discussed,  but  the  subject, 
with  others  that  have  been  treated,  is  one  that  would  require 
volumes  for  its  complete  study,  and,  therefore,  only  the 
leading  features  and  those  of  the  greatest  degree  of  novelty 
are  gone  into.  It  will  be  seen,  however,  from  the  principles 
given,  that  park  systems  are  of  the  greatest  civic  impor- 
tance and  that  the  subject  is  one  that  has  received  by  no 
means,  in  American  cities,  the  attention  that  it  deserves 
and  must  have. 


CHAPTER  XII 

CIVIC  EMBELLISHMENT 

Boulevards;  Plazas;  Parks;  Terraces;  Monuments;  Foun- 
tains; Gates;  Arches;  Shade  Trees;  Bridges;  Comfort 
Stations;    Bay  Fronts;    Water  Gates;    Quays 

However  well  a  city  may  be  planned,  its  avenues  laid 
out  and  its  parks  provided  in  liberality,  it  will  fail  of 
realizing  its  full  advantages,  unless  its  streets  are  properly 
embellished,  kept  clear  of  nuisances  and  given  proper  atten- 
tion in  every  detail. 

Such  embellishment  consists,  among  other  features,  of 
boulevards,  esplanades,  bridge  and  park  approaches,  water 
gates,  quays,  plazas,  squares,  bay  fronts,  terraces,  monu- 
ments, statuary,  fountains,  trees,  grass  plots,  artistically 
designed  electroliers,  trolley  poles  and  other  structures 
and  details. 

The  combination  of  such  features  makes  up  the  impression 
given  by  the  streets,  and  just  at  this  point,  carelessness, 
neglect  or  inadequacy  in  the  treatment  of  small  structures 
or  other  objects,  is  likely  to  destroy  the  whole  effect  and 
spoil  what  has  been  accomplished  at  the  cost  of  much  time, 
skill,  labor  and  expense. 

A  rigid  policy  of  exclusion  of  all  unnecessary  objects 
and  the  ornamentation  or  concealment  of  those  that  must 
remain  should  be  followed.  The  most  careful  attention 
must  be  given  to  each  and  every  minor  detail,  and  once  the 
method  of  treatment  is  determined  upon,  it  must  be  carried 
out.  If,  for  instance,  house  numbers  are  to  be  of  a  certain 
style,  the  style  must  be  made  known  and  the  requirements 
enforced,  and  not  be  permitted  to  be  avoided  or  neglected 
by  householders.  No  details  should  be  overlooked,  and 
under  no  considerations  should  new  obstructions  be  given 


150  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

a  place  on  the  street  unless  demanded  by  the  utmost 
necessity. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  features  of  civic  embellish- 
ment are  the  boulevards,  esplanades,  plazas  and  the  use  of 
grass  plots,  shrubbery  and  trees  on  the  streets. 

Trees  and  other  vegetation  are  highly  desirable  features 
of  civic  embellishment,  and  should  be  employed  wherever 
it  is  possible  to  utilize  them.  They  temper  the  heat  and 
the  glare,  afford  agreeable  shade,  relieve  the  eye,  improve 
the  air,  reduce  the  violence  of  the  wind  and  limit  the  force 
of  the  rain,  conceal  defects  and  necessary  structures,  lessen 
the  dust,  improve  the  vistas  and  offer  unending  sources  of 
variety  and  interest. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  have  the  trees  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  municipality,  and  to  have  them  planned  to  re- 
inforce the  character  of  the  street.  Thus,  if  at  the  end  of 
a  street,  a  monument  or  other  object  is  to  be  viewed,  the 
trees  should  be  of  such  a  type  that  their  branches  do  not 
interfere  with  the  view. 

In  the  denser  business  districts,  or  where  a  rather  com- 
plete view,  as  of  some  distant  mountain  or  object  is  desired, 
the  trees  should  be  of  a  kind  that  will  not  grow  large.  In 
other  avenues,  the  trees  may  be  larger,  leaving,  however,  an 
open  space  to  the  sky,  as  though  through  a  wall  of  vegeta- 
tion. In  other  streets,  it  will  be  desirable  to  have  the 
branches  of  the  trees  meet  in  the  middle  of  the  street,  thus 
forming  an  arch,  which  may  be  very  high  for  some  purposes, 
giving  an  effect  of  spaciousness  to  the  streets,  as  with  great  elms 
or  cottonwoods,  or  such  arches  may  be  low,  as  with  maples. 

Most  large  trees  span  from  twenty  to  fifty  feet  on  either 
side  of  the  trunk  when  their  development  is  unobstructed  so 
that  the  future  appearance  of  the  avenue  must  be  kept  in 
view  when  such  trees  are  planted.  The  trees  being  under 
the  control  of  the  municipality,  unsuitable  kinds  will  not  be 
used  as  would  be  the  case  had  private  owners  the  option  of 
planting  whatever  suited  them  best. 

In  streets  in  quiet  residential  sections,  in  which  archi- 
tectural features  are  subordinate,  trees  may  be  allowed  to 


CIVIC    EMBELLISHMENT 


151 


11 


PRESENT 
PLAN 


PROPOSED 
PLAN 


Figs.  45,  46  and  47.   remodelling  of  gateway  at  muller  and 

AMERIKANISCHE  STREETS,  BERLIN,  AND  BIRd's-EYE  VIEW 
OF  PROPOSED  IMPROVEMENT 


152  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

grow  in  their  own  way,  as  an  effect  of  individuality  is  thus 
obtained,  which  is  lost  when  the  trees  are  pruned  too  con- 
tinuously. 

In  cities  in  which  it  is  feasible  to  plant  trees  between  the 
car  tracks,  it  should  always  be  done,  as  they  prove  in  such 
location  of  exceptional  value.  With  grass  and  shrubbery, 
that  side  of  the  track  is  made  more  interesting  to  the  passen- 
gers, and  the  tracks  are  made  less  unsightly  to  the  general 
public.  The  undergrowth  absorbs  a  great  deal  of  the  noise 
as  well.  When  trolley  wires  are  used,  the  trees  conceal  the 
poles,  while  shrubbery  of  large  size  serves  to  conceal  struc- 
tures of  a  purely  utilitarian  purpose. 

Depending  upon  the  locality  and  the  desired  effect,  trees 
in  the  business  districts  are  pruned  to  a  greater  or  lesser 
extent,  often  being  kept  down  to  ten  or  fifteen  feet  in  diam- 
eter, as  is  also  done  on  some  streets  and  boulevards  and 
in  formal  parks,  while  on  broad  streets  and  squares  they 
may  often  be  allowed  to  grow  to  any  size. 

In  selecting  trees  for  use  in  streets  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  city,  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  effect  to  be 
secured,  as  some  kinds  of  trees  are  effective  in  certain  en- 
vironments but  not  in  others.  The  Lombardy  poplar,  for 
example,  is  quite  out  of  place  on  some  streets,  but  highly 
effective  when  placed  in  rows  around  quays,  or  on  piers,  or 
used  as  a  means  of  setting  off  promenades  or  isolated  fea- 
tures, being  often  employed  with  remarkable  results  in 
island  parks  and  on  free  approaches. 

Another  very  effective  use  of  trees  is  that  in  which 
a  single  great  tree  stands  alone  or  near  a  church  or  other 
structure,  and  either  by  itself  or  with  its  accompanying 
structure,  is  the  terminal  of  a  vista.  Sometimes  two  trees 
may  be  so  employed,  but  with  three  or  more,  the  striking 
effect  is  lost.  Examples  of  a  single  tree  so  used  are  seen  at 
Oldenburg  in  the  Gertrude  Church  Yard,  where  the  tree 
overtops  the  steeple  of  the  church  and  at  Freiburg  at  Salz 
and  Herren  Streets,  where  the  tree  shelters  a  fountain  at 
the  point  of  branching  streets,  the  tree  thus  being  the 
focal  point  of  the  center. 


THE    PIAZZETTA,    VENU.l,,    UUGl.    i'ALAi:!.    IN     Kl.AK 
Small  flagstone  paving 


HARBOR    GATE,    LINDAU 
Tower  and  nwnumeni  form  an  interesting  disymmetrie  contrast 


'« 
'  m 


,MuNi  .Mi::xTAL  i:i.i:i riiuc  i.KiiiT  coi.r.MNs,   bi:klin 
An  embellishment  of  the  Charluttenburg  Bridge,  Berlin,  breaking  up  monotoni]  of 

long  straight  streets 


HIVEK    PROMENADE,    THE    RHINE    AT    DLSSELDORF 
Freight  harjdling  apparatus  on  lower  level.     Highly  ornamental  eleetroliers 


CIVIC   EMBELLISHMENT  153 

Trees  in  cities  must  receive  the  best  of  care,  as  they  are 
growing  under  anomolous  conditions  and  are  likely  to  suc- 
cumb unless  constantly  looked  after. 

In  selecting  trees  for  city  use,  in  addition  to  selecting 
those  which  are  suited  to  the  gesthetic  purposes  to  be 
attained,  the  nature  and  condition  of  the  soil  must  also 
be  considered  and  suitable  arrangements  made  for  an  ade- 
quate water  supply.  This  may  often  be  effected  by  blind 
drains,  laid  at  the  time  the  tree  is  planted  and  regularly 
filled  with  water.  The  system  of  gutter  seepage  previously 
mentioned  is  also  useful. 

Among  the  trees  which  are  useful  for  city  purposes  are 
the  following:  Norway  Maple,  Sugar  Maple,  English,  Scotch 
and  American  Elms,  Cottonwood,  Horse  Chestnut,  Red, 
White  and  Pine  Oaks,  Ash,  Catalpa,  Linden,  Kentucky 
Coffee  Tree,  Thornless  Honey  Locust,  Lombardy  Poplar, 
Evergreen  Pines  and  Cedar. 

Among  the  various  structures  and  minor  utilities  which 
are  a  necessary  part  of  the  equipment  of  streets  and  which 
must  be  provided  for  and  treated  in  the  proper  spirit  are 
tramway  stations,  elevated  railroad  structures,  subway 
entrances,  safety  isles,  meteorological  stations,  news  stands, 
comfort  stations,  advertising  kiosks,  electroUers,  trolley 
poles,  letter  boxes,  fire  and  police  alarm  boxes,  hydrants, 
street  signs  and  various  forms  of  advertising  signs. 

The  proper  method  of  treating  most  of  these  items 
has  already  been  sufficiently  indicated,  but  a  further  con- 
sideration of  some  of  the  items  may  be  useful,  for  it  is 
always  possible  to  treat  all  such  equipment  in  such  a  way 
as  to  make  it  serve  an  sesthetic  as  well  as  a  utilitarian 
purpose. 

Trolley  poles  in  cities  using  the  overhead  system,  if 
properly  designed,  can  be  made  a  highly  ornamental  fea- 
ture of  street  equipment,  despite  their  condemnation  by 
many  landscape  architects.  Indeed,  certain  civic  engineers, 
after  struggling  with  the  problem  of  the  street  car  on 
boulevards  and  being  unable  to  solve  it,  suddenly  turned 
about   and   announced   the   impressive   discovery   that   the 


154  CITY   PLANNING   AND    MAINTENANCE 

street  car  was  in  reality  a  decorative  feature  of  the  first  aes- 
thetic importance.  The  same  naivety  may  be  expected  when 
the  effect  of  suitably  designed  trolley  poles  is  discovered. 

A  question  of  the  greatest  importance  in  city  planning, 
yet  one  which  does  not  receive  the  attention  that  it  should 
have,  is  the  public  comfort  station.  The  health  of  the 
public  is  seriously  affected  by  the  neglect  on  the  part  of 
cities  to  erect  an  adequate  number  of  such  structures. 
Physicians  cite  numerous  diseases  and  ailments  which  arise 
directly  out  of  such  neglect,  although  no  very  loud  demand 
seems  to  come  from  county  medical  associations  for  their 
establishment,  as  they  are  probably  too  much  engaged 
chasing  quacks. 

The  situation  for  women  is  much  more  serious  than 
for  men,  since  the  presence  in  every  corner  saloon  of  such 
facilities  solves  the  problem  to  a  large  extent  for  men,  while 
women  must  go  to  department  stores,  hotels,  office  buildings 
and  frequently  the  family  entrances  of  saloons  or  "hotels," 
coming  thus  in  contact  with  an  element  from  which  no  im- 
proving results  can  be  expected.  In  the  business  districts, 
women,  though  embarrassed  in  so  doing,  must  inquire  of 
banks,  real  estate  and  brokers'  offices  and  similar  business 
houses.  In  a  Western  city,  it  was  proposed  in  a  labor  union 
meeting  to  request  department  stores  to  close  on  Labor  Day, 
but  this  was  objected  to  by  a  member  on  the  grounds  that 
such  a  closing  would  deprive  his  wife  and  daughters  of  the 
facilities  found  in  such  stores.  The  result  of  his  well-taken 
objection  was  that  the  stores  were  permitted  to  remain  open. 

In  some  office  buildings  the  elevator  starters  estimate 
that  one-third  of  the  passengers  of  the  elevators  enter  the 
building  solely  for  the  purpose  of  using  the  toilet  facilities, 
and  for  that  reason,  many  of  the  more  exclusive  of  such 
buildings  lock  their  toilets,  providing  the  tenants  with  indi- 
vidual keys. 

As  there  is,  in  most  of  the  facilities  in  which  American 
cities  are  deficient,  "a  negro  in  the  woodpile,"  so  there  is 
in  the  matter  of  public  comfort  facilities.  Political  influence 
is  against  them  for  the  reason  that  saloons  find  their  com- 


CIVIC   EMBELLISHMENT  155 

fort  facilities  more  useful  in  attracting  the  public  than 
even  the  feature  of  free  lunch.  With  adequate  public 
facilities,  the  revenues  of  the  saloons  would  be  materially 
reduced. 

On  the  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Railroad,  the 
use  of  the  facilities  of  the  stations  has  recently  been  closed 
to  all  except  the  travelling  public.  This  would  appear  to  be 
in  the  nature  of  an  imposition,  since  a  railroad,  being  a 
a  public  service  corporation,  should,  like  the  licensed  inn 
keeper  or  saloon  keeper,  be  required  by  law  to  maintain  such 
facilities,  even  though  most  corporations  do  so  voluntarily. 

Two  methods  are  followed  in  the  architectural  treatment 
of  comfort  stations,  one  to  place  them  underground  with 
entrances  as  inconspicuous  as  possible,  and  the  other  to 
make  of  them  small  monumental  structures.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  many  of  such  structures  have  been  very  ugly,  and 
to  the  prejudice  against  them,  the  underground  comfort 
station,  with  no  surface  indication  of  its  presence,  is  growing 
in  favor. 

Among  the  most  successful  comfort  stations,  from  an 
architectural  point  of  view,  are  some  of  those  in  New  York, 
particularly  the  one  adjoining  the  Public  Library  on  West 
42d  Street,  at  the  corner  of  Bryant  Square;  the  one  at  the 
north  end  of  Battery  Park  and  another  on  Riverside  Drive, 

In  foreign  cities,  structures  of  this  kind  are  architec- 
turally much  superior  to  and  much  more  varied  than  those 
in  America,  often  being  in  a  rustic  style,  neat  in  appearance 
and  not  calculated  to  indicate  their  use.  They  are  placed 
on  squares,  bridge  approaches,  quays,  in  blocks  and  parks, 
and  usually  surrounded  by  shrubbery. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  have  such  stations 
sufTiciently  numerous,  for  example,  not  more  than  ten 
blocks  apart.  European  cities  provide  such  stations  in 
adequate  numbers,  and  owing  to  their  presence,  their  use 
has  become  much  more  a  matter  of  custom  than  it  is  in 
American  cities.  English  cities  are  well  provided.  Liver- 
pool maintains  about  forty  and  Glasgow  an  equal  number. 
Berlin  maintains  450  stations  or  about  one  to  every  10,000 


156  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

of  population,  which  for  a  large  city,  is  a  sufficient  number. 
Most  of  the  English  stations  are  underground,  and  the 
same  system  is  very  largely  followed  in  the  United  States, 
especially  in  the  business  districts,  where,  however,  the 
mistake  is  too  often  made  of  having  the  entrances  for  men 
and  women  in  close  proximity. 

In  cities  in  which  there  are  elevated  and  subway  roads, 
the  necessity  for  public  stations  is  not  so  great,  since  the 
stations  of  such  roads  are  provided  with  conveniences. 
They  are,  however,  reserved  for  passengers,  which  greatly 
lessens  their  usefulness,  and  it  would  appear  to  be  the  part 
of  wisdom  for  legislatures  to  provide  that  such  facilities 
should  be  open  to  the  public. 

Cities  might  also  with  great  advantage  make  arrange- 
ments with  certain  classes  of  stores,  such  as  drug  stores, 
tobacco  stores  and  others  open  at  all  hours,  for  placing 
public  comfort  stations  in  their  basements.  The  traffic 
through  the  stores  would  add  to  their  revenues,  while  the 
proper  arrangement  of  the  stores  could  be  such  that  the 
object  of  the  visitor  would  not  be  apparent.  An  emblem 
of  a  suitable  character  might  be  affixed  to  the  front  of  the 
store,  which  would  indicate  the  sanitary  convenience  af- 
forded but  which  would  not  prejudice  the  public  against  the 
store  or  the  convenience,  as  they  are  prejudiced  against  the 
municipal  stations. 

To  make  the  municipal  stations  less  objectionable,  it 
would  be  a  good  plan,  especially  in  the  stations  for  women, 
to  provide  additional  facilities,  making  such  stations  a 
public  convenience  in  every  sense  of  the  word.  In  addition 
to  the  usual  service,  telephones,  city  directories,  checking  of 
bundles  and  dressing-room  service  should  be  provided. 
Women  attendants  should  have  for  sale  combs,  sanitary 
napkins  and  other  articles,  and  pins,  needles,  thread  and 
the  use  of  clothes  brushes  should  be  free.  Such  stations 
should  be  provided  with  a  rest-room  containing  a  sanitary 
reed  couch  and  a  lavatory,  with  soap  and  towels  for  sale. 

Through  co-operation  with  office  buildings  and  stores, 
cities  could  install  adequate  conveniences  at  a  much  lower 


CIVIC   EMBELLISHMENT 


157 


cost  than  by  the  erection  of  independent  structures  which 
are  seldom  utilized  except  by  the  lower  classes.  In  the 
outlying  districts  and  in  parks,  the  erection  of  suitable 
buildings    is   more    necessary.     Where    such   a    structure   is 


Fig.  48.    ground  plan  of  proposed  king's  plaza,  Berlin 
A  Portion  of  a  very  Comprehensive  Rcplanning  Development  now  under  Way 

erected  in  a  park  or  where  underground  stations  are  pro- 
vided, there  should  be  an  emblem  to  indicate  the  location. 
For  this  purpose,  the  usual  sanitary  emblem  of  a  red  cross 
on  a  white  ground  could  be  used,  with  an  arrow  on  one  of 
the  arms  of  the  cross  indicating  the  direction  of  the  station. 
In  order  to  be  less  conspicuous,  the  color  of  the  cross  could 
be  of  a  duller  shade  of  red  than  that  usually  employed,  and 


158  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

the  ground  be  gray  or  dark  instead  of  white.  Such  an 
emblem,  only  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  tacked  to 
trees  or  posts,  would  serve  its  purpose  without  being  unduly 
conspicuous.  It  could  also  be  set  in  tile  in  the  sidewalk. 
In  crowded  sections  of  the  city,  such  an  emblem  in  the  side- 
walk, say  four  or  five  inches  in  diameter,  with  the  arrow 
in  one  arm  and  a  figure  in  another  indicating  the  num- 
ber of  blocks  to  the  nearest  station,  would  prove  very 
useful.  The  same  emblem,  say  but  an  inch  in  diameter, 
would  serve  for  the  druggist's  window  where  convenience 
facilities  were  provided.  It  could  certainly  not  mean  any 
less  to  the  health  of  the  public  than  the  present  emblem, 
affecting,  as  it  would,  such  a  vastly  greater  number  of 
persons. 

The  interior  arrangement  of  comfort  stations  is  a  matter 
depending  upon  the  location,  but  is  a  detail  which  requires 
experience  for  proper  determination.  In  fact  the  whole 
construction  of  the  station  is  often  no  small  problem,  and 
new  features  are  constantly  being  added  which  need  to  be 
taken  into  consideration.  Enough  has  been  said,  however, 
to  indicate  the  great  field  for  improvement  which  American 
cities  have  before  them,  and  which  they  cannot  undertake 
too  soon  to  cover. 

Perhaps  the  most  noticeable  of  the  small  structures  of 
European  streets  is  the  advertising  column  or  kiosk,  which 
has  been  referred  to.  While  such  columns  may  be  objected 
to  by  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  their  use,  yet  since 
no  large  posters  are  allowed  and  since  public  advertising  is 
more  or  less  of  a  necessity,  the  columns  are  found  to  be  of 
real  service  to  the  public,  especially  in  regard  to  announce- 
ments of  theatres  and  public  meetings  by  which  they  are 
mostly  occupied.  Since  no  sandwich  men,  banner  men, 
billboard  wagons  or  similar  advertising  schemes  are  per- 
mitted, the  advertising  column  may  well  be  pardoned. 
For  ordinary  commercial  purposes,  newspapers  are  found  to 
be  the  best  sources  of  publicity  and  the  public  is  thus 
saved  the  frightful  displays  of  crude  posters  and  signs  which 
deface   American    streets.     A   commercial   advertisement   is 


ROTHENBURG    ON    THE    TAUBER 
Herrengasse;   in  distance  the  Burg  Gate;   at  the  left  fountain  and  at  the  right 

the  City  Hall 


KAISER  FREDERICK  MONUMENT 
CHARLOTTENBURG 


UNTER  DEN  LINDEN,  AS  SEEN  FROM  THE  SCHLOSS  BRIDGE 

Effective  illumination  by  means  of  open  arc  lights 


CIVIC   EMBELLISHMENT  159 

thus  seldom  seen  displayed  in  public.  At  prominent  corners, 
however,  often  four  advertising  columns  may  be  placed,  two 
for  the  usual  purposes  and  two  for  news  stands.  They  are 
not,  however,  without  a  certain  artistic  effect,  and  do  not 
excite  adverse  criticism. 

In  Germany  and  Austria  advertising  art  has  advanced 
very  rapidly  during  the  last  decade.  The  best  posters  made 
come  from  the  hands  of  German  and  Austrian  designers. 
These  men  are  especially  trained  for  this  form  of  art  and 
display  extraordinary  ability  to  use  large  masses  of  glowing 
colors  in  striking  yet  harmonious  designs.  Americans  are 
thought  to  be  a  people  fond  of  jokes,  but  in  what  may  be 
termed  "humorous  drawing"  the  Germans  outdo  us  at  every 
turn,  and  an  ofTicial  billboard  in  a  German  street  will  often 
be  covered  with  quaint  designs,  each  signed  by  the  name  of 
some  famous  poster  maker. 

Boulevards,  with  their  rows  of  trees  and  well  laid  out 
grass  plots,  are  among  the  most  interesting  features  of  a 
city.  They  form,  in  fact,  continuous  parks,  and  are  a 
source  of  constant  enjoyment  and  elevation  to  the  resident 
and  the  visitor  alike,  since  no  one  can  promenade  an  avenue 
beautifully  laid  out  without  feeling  its  influence. 

But  when  the  city  itself  has  fulfilled  its  whole  duty  in 
the  embellishment  of  its  streets,  avenues,  promenades, 
boulevards  and  parks,  it  is  still  necessary  for  the  individual 
citizen  to  complete  the  work  by  the  erection  of  suitable 
and  artistic  buildings  and  residences.  The  work  of  the  city 
is,  at  best,  only  a  small  share  of  what  goes  to  make  up  the 
effect  of  the  street,  which  depends  finally  upon  the  struc- 
tures which  fill  it.  What  the  private  owner  builds,  therefore, 
is  what  makes  the  city,  and  he  should  therefore  realize  his 
responsibilities  and  put  up  only  structures  of  a  design  cal- 
culated to  improve  the  city.  Municipal  regulations  should 
also  enforce  a  certain  architectural  standard,  for  the  benefit  of 
the- whole  city,  whether  agreeable  to  the  private  owner  or  not. 

For  the  encouragement  of  private  owners,  foreign  cities 
often  offer  rewards  for  the  erection  of  the  most  artistic 
facades.     When  a  new  street  is  opened,  the  prizes  are  an- 


160  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

nounced,  and  when  the  street  is  built  up,  the  awards  are 
made.  The  prizes  are  usually  so  large,  in  Brussels,  for 
example,  often  being  $4000,  $2500  and  $1500  for  the  first, 
second  and  third  best  facades,  and  in  Paris  one-half  of 
the  street  tax  and  medals,  that  they  arouse  lively  competition 
among  house  owners  and  architects.  Such  a  system  may 
also  be  applied  to  streets  already  constructed,  in  which  case 
the  prizes  may  be  awarded  to  the  best  fapade  erected  dur- 
ing a  certain  term  of  years.  A  system  of  this  kind  puts 
a  premium  on  good  designing  and  amply  repays  the  outlay. 

In  American  cities  where  no  such  incentives  exist,  and 
where  the  sense  of  the  aesthetic  is  not  so  highly  developed, 
the  owner  may  erect  almost  any  sort  of  a  house,  while  the 
contractor  building  rows  of  houses  is  an  even  worse  offender. 

This  unbridled  liberty  or  license,  more  properly  speaking, 
has  produced  incongruous  and  heterogeneous  cities,  prin- 
cipally distinguished  as  collections  of  buildings  which  are 
masterpieces  of  ugliness. 

Although  the  system,  or  lack  of  system,  has  produced 
the  great  skyscrapers  of  New  York  and  other  large  cities, 
evolving,  in  an  artistic  sense,  an  architecture  distinctively 
American,  it  has  had  the  effect  of  making  American  streets 
mere  strings  of  unrelated  structures,  in  which  all  sense  of 
beauty  and  proportion  is  lost. 

It  is  a  matter  of  wonder,  passing  through  an  American 
city,  where  the  hordes  of  utterly  unfit  architects  have  come 
from  that  have  filled  the  land  with  such  frightful  examples 
of  their  art.  How  the  American  can  feel  any  interest  in 
the  purely  utilitarian  business  buildings  in  which  he  trans- 
acts his  affairs,  or  any  attachment  to  the  conglomeration 
of  rooms  he  calls  his  home,  is  difficult  to  see.  Indeed,  it  is 
surprising  how  he  can  find  the  place  he  calls  home,  for  on 
many  streets  whole  blocks  of  houses  will  either  be  duplicates 
of  each  other,  or  in  two  series  of  duplicates,  each  alternate 
house  being  similar,  like  an  endless  sandwich,  with  layers 
of  bread  and  corned  beef  indefinitely. 

America  is  only  waking  up,  only  commencing  to  exist 
architecturally.     Some  of   the   skyscrapers  and  some  of  the 


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CIVIC   EMBELLISHMENT  161 

public  and  private  buildings  are  good,  but  the  taste  of  the 
public  is  not  yet  formed.  An  ugly  house  is  simply  a  house. 
It  gives  no  pain  on  account  of  being  ugly,  for  the  eye  of  the 
pubUc  is  uneducated  and  as  little  troubled  by  bad  archi- 
tecture as  the  eye  of  the  illiterate  by  bad  spelling. 

Mr.  Ernest  Flagg,  designer  of  the  Singer  Building,  and 
of  many  other  notable  structures,  in  an  article,  "Are 
American  Cities  Going  Mad  Architecturally?"  in  the  New 
York  Times  of  August  6,  1911,  describes  conditions  truth- 
fully when  he  says: 

"Our  artistic  sense  is  undeveloped.  There  is  no  great 
body  of  amateurs  here,  such  as  is  found  in  more  refined 
communities,  who  are  capable  of  analyzing  our  productions 
and  placing  them  at  their  true  worth.  It  is  only  a  ques- 
tion of  time,  however,  when  public  taste  will  become  more 
cultivated,  and  when  that  time  does  come,  there  will  be  a 
great  tumbling  of  reputations  which  now  stand  high. 

"Our  architecture  smacks  too  much  of  archaeology;  it 
is  not  modern;  we  use  modern  methods  of  construction  and 
antique  methods  of  design.  Why  do  not  the  people  of  the 
United  States  recognize  that  every  great  work  of  art  which 
has  had  an  undying  reputation,  was  strictly  modern  when 
it  was  made?  No  copy,  or  adaptation,  no  matter  how 
cleverly  done,  can  endure  the  test  of  time  and  stand  as  a 
work  of  art. 

"We  are  veritable  barbarians  in  matters  of  taste,  we 
ransack  Europe  for  old  fragments  which,  though  they  may  be 
charming  in  their  original  situation,  become  little  better 
than  so  much  rubbish  when  set  up  in  the  midst  of  inhar- 
monious surroundings.  We  deck  out  our  houses  and  gardens 
with  these  things,  in  precisely  the  same  way  and  with  as 
little  regard  to  propriety  as  savages  when  they  array  them- 
selves with  the  incongruous  objects  which  they  obtain  from 
European  traders. 

"The  savages  which  Henry  Hudson,  on  his  second  visit, 
found  wearing  the  hatchet  heads  he  had  sold  them,  as  neck 
ornaments,  present  no  more  comical  picture  than  our  art 


162  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

amateur  often  does  in  his  use  of  spoils  from  European 
churches  and  monasteries. 

"One  sees  gardens  attached  to  shingled  cottages,  decked 
out  with  marble  seats,  vases  and  fountains  taken  from 
Italian  villas.  Houses  in  our  cities  are  fitted  out  with 
fragments  from  European  palaces  which  are  as  much  out  of 
harmony  with  the  surroundings  as  a  steam  engine  would  be 
in  a  mediaeval  church.  Sometimes  whole  interiors  have  been 
taken  from  a  European  building  and  set  up  here.  Rich 
men's  houses  are  turned  into  museums,  where  there  are  as 
many  styles  as  there  are  rooms,  all  warring  with  each  other 
and  with  the  exterior  of  the  building. 

"We  have  been  having  a  very  carnival  of  vulgarity,  and 
an  ostentatious  display  of  wealth  and  bad  taste  by  people 
who  are  regarded  as  leaders  in  refinement. 

"In  the  midst  of  the  chaos  and  confusion,  with  public 
taste  at  as  low  an  ebb  as  it  probably  ever  reached  among 
people  who  pretend  to  be  civilized,  with  architecture  for  the 
most  part  in  the  hands  of  men  who  have  had  little  training 
in,  or  knowledge  of,  even  the  elementary  principles  of  design, 
our  new  methods  of  building  were  ushered  in  and  we  were 
called  upon  to  deal  with  a  problem  the  proper  solution  of 
which  called  for  a  more  technical  and  artistic  skill  than  we 
possessed. 

"The  time  is  at  hand  when  the  absurdity  and  bad  taste 
of  our  past  methods  will  be  fully  understood  and  freely  ad- 
mitted. We  shall  cease  to  wonder  that  cultivated  foreigners 
are  not  favorably  impressed  by  our  tall  buildings,  and  will 
set  ourselves  to  work  to  make  them  as  perfect  and  reasonably 
artistic  as  they  are  ingenious  and  daring  mechanically  and 
constructively." 

The  lack  of  artistic  feeling  for  architecture  has  its  coun- 
terpart in  not  only  other  structures,  such  as  bridges,  docks 
and  terminals,  in  which  it  should  naturally  manifest  itself, 
but  also  in  various  kinds  of  design,  where  the  utilitarian 
purpose  crowds  out  every  other  consideration. 

Engineers    particularly    design    their    works   with    little 


CIVIC  EMBELLISHMENT  163 

attention  to  the  beautiful,  and  in  the  most  important  feature 
of  modern  times,  the  rapidity  with  which  the  numerous 
discoveries  in  science  are  appUed  to  commercial  purposes, 
there  is  lacking,  throughout,  the  touch  of  artistry. 

In  order  to  have  such  engineering  undertakings  appeal  to 
the  public  or  the  layman,  it  is  essential  to  give  them  con- 
sideration from  the  artistic  standpoint,  and  this  is  doubly 
important  when  such  structures  are  to  be  located  in  or  near 
a  considerable  community,  and  particularly  when  such  a 
community  is  one  educated  up  to  the  desirability  of  the 
application  of  aesthetic  principles  to  the  arrangement  of  its 
structures. 

A  principle  of  city  planning  in  the  application  of  which 
great  results  may  be  obtained,  is  that  of  color. 

American  cities,  particularly,  tend  to  assume  a  certain 
dull,  greyish  weather-beaten  appearance,  due  to  dust,  smoke 
and  climatic  effects,  and  the  presence  in  the  air  of  acids 
from  factory  smoke.  In  modern  cities,  such  conditions  soon 
obliterate  the  appearance  of  freshness  and  newness,  and  age 
seems  to  overtake  very  quickly  all  kinds  of  buildings. 

The  relief  of  color  thus  becomes  doubly  appreciated,  but 
in  its  application  the  same  aesthetic  principles  must  be 
observed  that  hold  good  in  other  departments  of  city  plan- 
ning. There  must  be  harmony  of  color  between  adjoining 
buildings  and  a  proper  sense  of  color  effects,  in  order  that 
certain  buildings  will  not  detract  attention  from  those  which 
should  attract  the  eye.  The  purpose  of  color  should  be  to 
reduce  monotony  and  to  accentuate  the  existing  aesthetic 
balance  and  variety.  Where  buildings  are  not  well  related, 
color  effects  may  be  employed  to  emphasize  certain  ones,  and 
to  minimize  the  discordant  features  of  the  whole  effect. 

It  is,  however,  largely  the  custom  in  America  to  leave 
buildings  in  the  natural  color  of  their  material,  particularly 
stone  and  brick  buildings,  though  brick  buildings,  especially 
when  they  begin  to  show  signs  of  wear,  are  painted.  Stone 
is  seldom  painted,  and  stone  buildings  have  thus  been  ex- 
posed to  the  mercy  of  the  elements.  Disintegration  has 
proceeded  at  a  rapid  rate,  and  the  effects  of  a  few  decades 


164  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

have  been,  in  many  cases,  almost  disastrous.  In  the  old 
brownstone  houses  of  New  York,  window  sills,  balconies 
and  steps  have  crumbled  almost  off,  and  great  scales  have 
dropped  from  the  walls. 

In  Central  Park,  New  York,  the  Obelisk  suffered  more 
disintegration  in  a  few  years  than  it  had  in  as  many  cen- 
turies in  Egypt.  The  timely  discovery,  however,  that  a 
coating  of  hot  parafTme,  sinking  slightly  into  the  surface  of 
the  stone,  will  preserve  it  indefinitely,  is  proving  of  the 
greatest  value  to  owners  of  stone  buildings  and  insures  a 
larger  use  of  stone  in  its  natural  state  in  future. 

Americans  prefer  buildings  in  the  natural  color  of  their 
materials,  our  cities  are  practically  devoid  of  any  definite 
color  scheme.  With  the  use  of  glazed  brick  and  tile,  how- 
ever, new  color  effects  are  being  obtained,  as  such  materials 
are  but  little  affected  by  the  atmospheric  conditions.  The 
rain  washes  off  most  of  the  dust  and  soot.  The  use  of  such 
materials,  however,  is  not  likely,  for  a  long  time,  to  make 
any  considerable  change  in  the  aspect  of  our  cities,  which 
are  likely  to  continue  more  or  less  monotonously  weather- 
beaten  in  appearance. 

In  marked  contrast  to  American  cities  are  those  of 
Russia,  in  which  the  building  conditions  are  such  as  to  en- 
courage the  demand  of  the  Russian  for  bright  colors.  Most 
of  the  buildings  in  the  cities  are  of  brick,  which  if  exposed 
to  the  weather  would  soon  crumble.  They  are  accordingly 
covered  with  plaster,  which  has  to  be  renewed  frequently, 
and  painted.  The  opportunity  for  materials  in  their  natural 
color  thus  being  limited,  the  use  of  surface  coloring  is 
utilized  to  produce  a  great  variety  of  effects.  Not  usually 
being  subject  to  regulation,  the  results  are  often  bad,  but 
when,  by  accident  or  design,  the  color  scheme  is  harmonious, 
splendid  effects  are  produced. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  variety  of  colors  employed,  dur- 
ing a  recent  season  in  St.  Petersburg,  the  Winter  Palace  was 
painted  a  light  chocolate  coat  throughout,  the  usual  method; 
the  Ermitage  —  the  art  museum  —  light  buff;  the  Imperial 
Archives,  white;   the  Ministries,  dark  brown;  the  Admiralty, 


CIVIC  EMBELLISHMENT  165 

light  yellow,  and  another  building  in  black.  In  Moscow  the 
Church  of  St.  Alexis  had  red  walls,  white  trimmings  and  a 
green  roof,  the  Church  of  Ste.  Catherine,  blue  and  gilt,  and 
the  Petit  Palais,  yellow  and  white. 

Color  scheme  of  surface  painting  could  be  applied  with 
great  effect  in  numerous  parts  of  the  United  States  in  which 
frame  buildings  abound,  but  which  are  ordinarily  painted 
white  with  green  trimmings.  In  cities,  in  which  concrete 
structures  are  increasing  in  numbers,  surface  painting  may 
be  employed  with  effect,  since  recent  discoveries  in  chemical 
science  enable  concrete  buildings  to  be  painted. 

Concrete  may  also  be  colored  when  it  is  mixed,  and  the 
color  thus  made  integral.  While  an  expensive  method  for 
large  reinforced  concrete  structures,  it  could  be  used  with 
great  advantage  in  houses  built  of  concrete  blocks,  in  which 
the  outer  shell  might  be  in  different  colors,  suitably  har- 
monized, or  only  certain  parts  in  color  in  contrast  to  the 
remainder  in  natural  concrete. 

An  interesting  example  of  colors  in  natural  materials  is 
seen  in  the  Broadway-Chambers  Building,  New  York,  in 
which  brick  and  tile  furnish  reddish  and  terra  cotta  effects  in 
a  most  pleasing  and  harmonious  manner,  and  the  College  of 
the  City  of  New  York,  in  which  white  and  slate  blue  are 
employed  with  striking  results. 

Civic  embellishment,  as  will  be  seen,  is  a  subject  of  the 
most  extended  nature.  It  is  of  vital  importance  to  a  city, 
and  in  addition  one  which  will,  in  some,  at  least,  of  its  numer- 
ous phases,  afford  every  citizen  an  opportunity  of  adding  his 
individual  contribution  to  the  city's  appearance. 

And  when  each  citizen  is  doing  his  share  individually,  he 
will  be  much  more  interested  in  the  work  of  the  whole  city, 
while  the  taste  cultivated  in  such  embellishment  will  lead  to 
a  better  realization  of  the  advisability  of  city  planning  itself. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

BUILDING  REGULATION  AND  BLOCK  PLANS 

Height  of  Buildings;  Arrangement  of  Buildings;  Proportion 
of  Lot  Built  Upon;  Gradation  of  Factories;  Size  of 
Apartments;   Workingmen's  Houses;   Block  Plans 

In  the  art  and  science  of  city  planning,  the  element  of 
elevation  is  of  fundamental  importance,  and  the  aesthetic 
principles  of  elevation  are  similar  to  those  of  the  other  ele- 
ments of  design;  that  is  to  say,  in  the  elevation  of  buildings, 
the  laws  of  harmony,  variety,  contrast,  symmetry,  balance 
and  the  like  must  be  observed. 

In  earlier  city  planning  when  churches  were  the  highest 
structures,  the  church  was  taken  as  the  principal  feature  of 
the  skyline,  and  the  other  portions  of  the  city  and  other 
buildings  scaled  thereto,  the  spire  dominating  the  city  and 
showing  to  the  traveller  at  a  distance  the  presence  of  the 
city.  Where  several  churches  existed  in  a  town,  the  spire 
or  spires  of  one  were  made  sufficiently  important  to  dominate 
the  others.  The  same  principles  still  hold  good  and  are  be- 
ing followed  in  continental  city  planning.  The  accompany- 
ing illustrations  of  the  cities  of  Cologne,  Bremen  and  Ham- 
burg, opposite  page  168,  give  the  principles,  which,  however, 
are  not  applicable  in  the  United  States,  owing  to  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  skyscraper. 

In  planning  a  street  or  avenue,  its  length  and  width 
should  be  determined,  and  having  been  limited  on  the 
principles  already  pointed  out,  the  height  of  the  buildings 
and  the  skyline  should  be  considered.  The  street  or  avenue 
should  be  treated  as  a  unit,  and  some  building  on  it  should 
dominate  the  others.  There  should  be  a  certain  variety  in 
the  height  of  some  of  the  buildings  in  order  to  enable  the 
principal  building  to  be  balanced,  and  to  afford  the  necessary 


BUILDING  REGULATIONS 


167 


contrast  throughout  the  avenue.  The  principal  building 
should  ordinarily  be  at  one  of  the  closures  of  the  street, 
although  in  some  cases  it  may  be  placed  at  another  point. 

In  many  cities,  hard  and  fast  rules  have  been  laid  down 
as  to  the  heights  of  buildings,  and  while  in  a  general  way 
such  rules  are  good  and  accomplish  many  useful  purposes, 
if  they  are  not  applied  with  judgment  and  adapted  to  the 


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j*«_ 


Fig,  49.   the  relation  of  the  height  of  buildings  to  width  of 
street  is  determined  by  picture  to  be  produced 

When  the  street  is  only  as  wide  as  the  height  of  the  buildings  the  spectator  must  look 
upward  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  to  see  the  cornice  line,  and  in  addition  only  a  limited  length 
of  cornice  can  be  seen.  Only  when  the  street  width  is  three  times  the  building  height  can  a 
pleasing  and  satisfactory  view  be  obtained 


Fig.  50.   in  order  to  balance  a  low  building  back  of  the  building 

LINE,    WITH    taller    ONES    ON    THE    BUILDING    LINE    FLANKING    IT, 
parking    and    a    lower    ORNAMENTAL    OR    MONUMENTAL 
STRUCTURE    IS    PLACED    BEFORE    IT 

circumstances,  they  may  produce  ill  effects.  In  Paris,  for 
example,  the  regulations  as  to  the  heights  of  buildings  have 
had  the  effect  in  many  streets  of  producing  monotony,  and 
the  skyline  is  usually  monotonous.  Too  much  blame  should 
not  be  placed  on  the  regulation,  however,  as  in  some  Pari- 


168  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

sian  streets,  under  the  same  regulation,  monotony  has  been 
avoided.  In  New  York,  too,  where  there  is  no  regulation, 
endless  rows  of  brownstones  of  the  same  height  and  identi- 
cally the  same  skyline  have  been  erected,  veritable  triumphs 
in  monotony.  It  is,  nevertheless,  impossible  to  produce  the 
best  effects  of  variety  when  a  procrustean  regulation  as  to 
height  is  in  effect. 

Instead  of  an  inflexible  ordinance  in  regard  to  the  heights 
of  buildings,  a  city  should  have  a  board  of  civic  engineers 
with  authority  to  pass  upon  the  design  of  every  building,  and 
no  building  should  be  erected  without  its  plans  having  first 
had  the  approval  of  the  board.  With  ample  authority,  the 
board  could  accordingly  refuse  to  issue  building  permits  for 
structures  not  in  conformity  with  the  remainder  of  the 
street  and  only  such  buildings  permitted  to  be  higher  than 
the  others  as  would  improve  the  appearance  of  the  street. 

That  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  a  certain  variety 
in  the  heights  of  buildings  and  their  facades,  is  evident  when 
the  effect  is  seen  of  uniformity,  such  as  in  the  Royal  Cres- 
cent at  Bath,  England,  and  Regent's  Quadrant,  London. 
In  these  examples,  though  the  style  is  substantial,  the  facades 
are  all  similar,  the  cornices  alike  and  the  skyline  unvaried. 
An  effect  of  monotony  is  thus  produced.  Even  if  it  had 
been  the  intention  of  the  designers  of  these  buildings  to  have 
them  regarded  as  an  architectural  entity,  and  not  as  separate 
structures,  a  most  unsuccessful  result  was  produced,  particu- 
larly as  in  each  case  the  buildings,  being  on  semi-circular 
streets,  afforded  unusual  opportunities  for  aesthetic  treat- 
ment. A  street  which  is  the  segment  of  a  circle  or  which 
has  some  other  form  of  curved  plan,  can  be  made  much  more 
pleasing  than  a  straight  street,  as  the  facades  appear  to 
better  advantage  and  the  whole  street  is  more  of  a  unit  and 
more  picturesque.  For  the  pedestrian,  the  constantly  chan- 
ging view  absorbs  the  attention  and  enables  the  distance  to 
be  covered  with  less  sense  of  fatigue. 

Where  there  is  no  regulation  of  the  heights  of  buildings, 
as  in  New  York,  not  only  the  utmost  architectural  disorder 
ensues,  and  a  jungle  of  buildings  springs  up,  but  most  unjust 


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Skylines  of  cities  where  the  towers  of  churches  dominate  the  rest  of  the  city 


BUILDING   REGULATIONS  169 

commercial  conditions  arise.  Buildings  adjoining  a  sky- 
scraper lose  a  large  part  of  their  rental  value,  while  the  sky- 
scraper itself  never  proves  very  remunerative,  the  returns  on 
the  money  invested  varying  from  2  per  cent  to  7  per  cent, 
and  averaging  not  more  than  4  per  cent  and  seldom  reaching 
5  per  cent.  In  many  cases,  the  skyscraper,  especially  when 
in  the  form  of  a  tower  structure,  is  put  up  largely  for  ad- 
vertising purposes,  so  that  the  rental  revenue  derived  is  not 
the  only  return.  The  skyscrapers  set  a  higher  standard  of 
office  accommodation,  and  thousands  of  firms  must  measure 
up  to  it  that  cannot  afford  to  do  so.  As  they  make  no 
large  profits  for  themselves  and  depreciate  the  value  of 
other  property,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  are  by  no  means  a 
commercial  blessing. 

A  more  equitable  plan  than  either  absence  of  regulation 
or  too  rigid  regulations,  would  be,  in  addition  to  the  flexible 
regulations  of  the  board  of  civic  engineers  suggested,  the 
imposition  of  a  progressive  tax  on  the  height  of  buildings, 
increasing  the  rate  for  every  floor  to  such  an  extent  that  tall 
buildings  would  bear  a  large  additional  burden  of  taxation. 

As  public  buildings  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  the 
only  way,  as  has  been  indicated,  by  which  the  appearance  of 
the  streets  can  be  given  desired  characteristics,  is  through 
the  regulation  of  private  building  enterprise.  Opposition  to 
such  regulation  can  have  no  foundation  other  than  that  of 
private  interest,  and  no  outcome  except  confusion  and 
injustice. 

That  such  regulation  is  feasible  is  indicated  by  the  regu- 
lations imposed  on  theatres  and  the  fireproofing  regulation 
of  buildings  of  certain  classes.  No  good  argument  can,  in 
fact,  be  advanced  against  regulation. 

A  form  of  encouragement  to  private  owners  to  erect  new 
buildings  which  proves  effective  abroad,  is  that  of  tax 
exemption  for  a  term  of  years  on  a  new  building.  This 
could  be  carried  into  effect  in  the  United  States  by  suitable 
boards  of  officials  who  would,  for  example,  select  certain 
unimproved  sections  or  those  covered  by  small  or  old  build- 
ings,  and  declare  that  if  new  buildings  were  erected,   the 


170  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

owners  would  be  exempt  from  taxation  for  five  years  from 
the  time  of  the  declaration.  The  owners  would  thus  have 
an  incentive  to  erect  the  new  buildings  as  promptly  as 
possible,  since  delay  would  give  them  a  shorter  term  of 
exemption  from  taxes. 

The  same  principle  is  already  carried  out  in  another  form 
in  many  American  cities,  through  giving  free  sites  to  fac- 
tories and  similar  tax  exemption  inducements. 

Perhaps  the  regulations  most  generally  in  effect  abroad 
are  those  which  limit  the  heights  of  buildings.  Such  limits 
are  customarily  placed  sufficiently  low,  so  that  the  value  of 
the  land  will  cause  all  the  buildings  to  be  run  up  to  the  full 
limit  of  the  regulations. 

The  height  of  buildings  is  generally  limited  in  proportion 
to  the  width  of  the  street.  While  the  proportion  differs 
somewhat  in  different  cities,  the  regulations  of  Paris  are 
representative.     They  are  as  follows: 

In  streets  less  than  12  meters  wide  (39  feet)  the  height  of 
the  building  must  not  exceed  the  width  of  the  street  by  more 
than  6  meters  (193/^  feet).  For  every  additional  width  of  a 
meter  in  the  street,  a  quarter  of  a  meter  (9%  inches)  may  be 
added  to  the  height  of  the  building  until  a  limit  of  20  meters 
(nearly  66  feet)  to  the  eaves  is  reached,  which  no  building 
may  exceed. 

Thus  a  building  on  a  narrow  street  may  be  59  feet  high, 
while  on  a  wide  street  but  66  feet,  a  difference  of  only  7  feet. 
This  in  reality  is  insufficient  to  afford  the  necessary  variety 
between  streets,  since  all  the  streets  of  a  city  should  not  be 
confined  to  buildings  of  practically  the  same  height. 

The  regulation  as  to  the  height  being  taken  to  the  eaves, 
has  the  effect  of  modifying  the  architecture  of  the  buildings, 
producing  mansard  roofs,  which  gain  an  additional  story 
without  violating  the  code. 

In  German  cities  the  height  of  buildings  is  somewhat 
similar  to  those  in  Paris.  In  Berlin  the  height  varies  from 
18  to  24  meters  or  from  59  to  79  feet.  The  minimum  height 
to  which  buildings  are  limited  varies  in  different  cities.  In 
Wiesbaden,  Bremen  and  Barmen  it  is  15  meters  (49  feet),  in 


BUILDING   REGULATIONS 


171 


Hanover  143-^  meters  (463^2  feet),  in  Diisseldorf  and  Breslau, 
13  meters  (42%  feet),  in  Munich  12  meters  (39 Vs  feet),  and 
in  Kiel  and  Cologne  11  meters  (36  feet),  this  being  the  mini- 
mum on  the  narrowest  streets.  It  is  greater,  however,  in 
wider  streets. 

Not  only  is  the  height  of  buildings  regulated  in  German 
cities  but  also  the  maximum  and  minimum  number  of 
stories,  which  depends,  however,  on  the  zone  in  which  the 
building  lies. 

In  Berlin  and  Hamburg,  the  greater  part  of  the  buildings 
must  be  either  four  or  five  stories  in  height.     Throughout 


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A       A 


X 


Fig.  5L   suggestions  for  setting  back  floors  of  tall  buildings 

the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  the  number  of  stories  runs  from 
three  to  five  in  the  suburbs  and  outlying  districts,  three  being 
the  maximum  and  in  the  business  districts,  five.  In  Munich, 
Cologne,  Diisseldorf,  Halle  and  Breslau,  all  buildings  must 
be  at  least  two  stories  in  height,  but  in  Bremen,  one-story 
buildings  may  be  erected.  In  Baden,  houses  in  the  country 
are  not  permitted  to  be  over  two  stories  in  height. 

The  fixing  of  the  limitations  as  to  the  heights  of  buildings 
should  be  undertaken  only  with  the  most  careful  considera- 
tion, since  real  estate  values  are  limited  and  the  city  caused 
to  grow  in  an  altogether  different  manner  than  if  not  regu- 
lated. Once  such  regulations  are  fixed,  they  should  not  be 
changed  except  for  the  most  important  reasons,  for  buildings 
once  having  been  erected  under  the  regulations,  any  change 
will  have  the  effect  of  discrimination  either  against  the  new 
ones  or  the  old  ones. 

American  cities  have  to  a  certain  extent  taken  up  the 


172  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

question  of  the  regulation  of  the  heights  of  buildings.  The 
Commission  on  the  City  Plan,  Hartford,  Conn.,  investigated 
the  subject  and  in  its  report  for  the  year  ending  March  31, 
1911,  gave  the  result  ascertained.  Of  the  thirty  cities  listed, 
nineteen  had  no  ordinance  governing  the  height  of  buildings. 
These  cities  were  as  follows: 

Albany,  N.  Y.,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  Dayton, 
Ohio,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  MinneapoUs,  Minn.,  Newark,  N.  J., 
Paterson,  N.  J.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Reading,  Pa.,  Nashville, 
Tenn.,  Richmond,  Va.,  San  Antonio,  Tex.,  Spokane,  Wash., 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  Tacoma,  Wash., 
Toledo,  Ohio,  and  Trenton,  N.  J. 

The  ordinance  provisions  of  the  eleven  other  cities,  as 
abstracted  or  quoted  in  the  report,  are  as  follows: 

Baltimore,  Md.  —  No  building  more  than  175  feet, 
except  that  towers,  spires  or  belfries  in  fireproof  buildings 
may  extend  to  greater  height. 

Boston,  Mass.  —  No  ordinance,  but  building  laws  provide 
the  following:  City  divided  into  districts.  District  A, 
buildings  of  fireproof  construction  can  be  erected  to  a  height 
of  125  feet,  in  another  district  to  the  height  of  100  feet,  in 
a  third,  80  feet,  but  the  buildings  in  these  later  districts  are 
not  of  the  same  construction  as  District  A. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.  —  "Outside  the  fire  limits  of  the  city  of 
BufTalo,  it  shall  be  lawful  to  erect  frame  buildings  not  ex- 
ceeding 50  feet  in  height  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  highest 
point  of  roof." 

Cleveland,  Ohio.  —  "No  building  or  other  structure  here- 
after erected  except  a  church  spire,  shot  tower,  water  tower 
or  smoke  stack,  shall  be  of  a  height  exceeding  two  and  one 
half  times  the  width  of  the  widest  street  upon  which  building 
faces,  but  no  building  shall  be  over  200  feet  high." 

Denver,  Colo.  —  "No  building  or  structure  to  exceed  12 
stories  except  spires,  towers,  smokestacks,  etc.  All  buildings 
or  structures  more  than  125  feet  high,  absolutely  fireproof." 

Los  Angeles,  Calif.  —  Fire  district,  1  story  only  and 
not  over  16  feet  high. 

Class  A.     All  buildings  upheld  by  masonry  or  reinforced 


BUILDING   REGULATIONS  173 

concrete  or  framework  of  steel  or  iron.  Fireproof  or  skeleton 
construction.  No  building  over  150  feet,  allowing  30  feet 
for  mansard  roof  —  not  more  than  7  stories. 

Class  B.  Masonry  or  masonry  and  steel,  and  iron  and 
steel  buildings,  supporting  iron  or  steel  masonry.  Not  over 
100  feet  high,  nor  more  than  8  stories. 

Class  C.  Masonry  or  reinforced  concrete  walls,  floors 
not  wholly  carried  by  steel  columns,  and  girders  or  rein- 
forced concrete  and  masonry  —  85  feet  high,  not  more  than 
6  stories  exclusive  of  basements. 

Class  D.  All  buildings  not  included  in  A,  B  and  C, 
50  feet  high,  not  more  than  4  stories. 

Louisville,  Ky.  —  No  non-fireproof  building  or  structure 
outside  the  fire  limits  shall  exceed  70  feet  in  height,  but 
this  shall  not  apply  to  spires  of  churches  or  similar  buildings 
outside  of  the  fire  limits  which  may  be  constructed  of  wood 
to  a  height  of  125  feet  above  the  curb  level. 

Portland,  Ore.  —  Class  I  (absolutely  fireproof),  12  stories 
or  160  feet. 

Class  II  (fireproof,  short  span),  12  stories  or  160  feet. 

Class  III  (fireproof,  long  span),  10  stories  or  140  feet. 

Class  IV  (semi-fireproof),  6  stories  or  85  feet. 

Class  V  (mill  construction),  6  stories  or  85  feet. 

Class  VI  (ordinary  construction)  4  stories  or  60  feet. 

Class  VII  (frame  construction),  3  stories  or  42  feet. 

Providence,  R.  I.  —  No  ordinance.  Building  law  pro- 
vides "No  non-fireproof  building  or  structure  hereafter 
erected  should  exceed  65  feet  in  height." 

"No  fireproof  building  (ordinary')  or  structure  hereafter 
erected  shall  exceed  120  feet  in  height,  except  that  structures 
or  appendages  may  be  built  upon  roofs  of  said  buildings  not 
exceeding  twenty  feet  in  height,  provided  that  said  structure 
or  appendages  shall  be  built  of  incombustible  material 
throughout." 

"Every  building  hereafter  erected  or  altered  to  be  used 
as  a  theatre  or  public  station  which  exceeds  three  stories  or 
more  than  40  feet  in  height,  shall  be  built  fireproof 
(absolute)  except  as  hereinafter  specified." 


174  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Rochester,  N.  Y.  —  No  ordinance.    Height  regulated  to 

conform  to  size  and  strength  of  foundations  and  construction 

of  walls. 

San   Francisco,    Calif.  —  Fireproof    buildings,    102   feet; 

semi-fireproof  buildings,  from  55  to  86  feet. 

The  maximum  heights  of  buildings  permitted  by  ordinance 

in  some  of  the  other  large  cities  of  the  United  States  having 

such  restrictions  are: 

Feet 

Charleston,  S.  C 125 

Chicago,  111 200 

Erie,  Pa 200 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 200 

Indianapolis,  Ind 200 

Manchester,  N.  H 125 

Milwaukee,  Wis 225 

Newark,  N.J 200 

Salt  Lake  City .125 

Scranton,  Pa 125 

Worcester,  Mass 125 

As  will  be  seen  from  these  regulations,  a  tendency  against 
skyscrapers  is  beginning  to  manifest  itself.  It  seems,  indeed, 
that  the  crest  of  the  wave  has  been  reached.  The  fallacy 
of  erecting  such  buildings  is  beginning  to  manifest  itself 
very  clearly,  for  they  bring  in  their  train  many  disadvan- 
tages and  very  few  compensating  advantages.  In  addition 
to  setting  a  higher  standard  of  office  occupancy,  they  pro- 
duce congestion  in  the  streets  they  occupy,  and  check  the 
increase  of  real  estate  values  in  other  portions  of  the  city, 
where  business  buildings  would  be  forced  to  go  if  skyscrapers 
were  prohibited.  Such  sections  are  consequently  left  un- 
developed with  old  and  increasingly  unsanitary  buildings. 
The  concentration  of  office  facilities  also  produces  a  con- 
centration in  living  quarters,  with  high  rents  and  dark  and 
unhealthful  accommodations. 

Skyscrapers  themselves  force  a  large  proportion  of  their 
occupants  to  work  under  artificial  light  in  rooms  with  poor  or 
artificial  ventilation,  and  they  thus  have,  both  directly  and 
indirectly,  a  deleterious  effect  upon  the  health  of  the  public. 


WORKINGMEN  S    APARTMENT    HOUSES    IX    NL  UEMBElUi 

Exterior  facade  and  interior  court 


e 


a 


2 

u 

Q 


BUILDING  REGULATIONS  175 

When  in  the  form  of  loft  buildings,  such  structures 
intensify  congestion  in  the  regions  in  which  they  are  located, 
and  in  addition  produce  congestion  in  the  districts  in  which 
the  workers  live.  This  concentration  of  workers  in  poor 
quarters  increases  the  cost  of  living,  is  unhealthy  and  leads 
to  labor  troubles. 

While  tall  buildings  thus  enable  a  city  to  increase  its 
population  and  are  therefore  usually  encouraged  by  cities, 
it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  take  measures  to  stop  their 
erection,  and  to  make  such  regulations  as  will  distribute 
throughout  the  state  the  various  industries  and  their 
workers  and  prevent  the  collection  in  cities  of  numbers  of 
factories  in  the  same  line  of  work. 

This  may  be  effected  by  grading  factories  in  accordance 
with  the  number  of  men  employed  and  with  the  kind  of 
articles  manufactured,  and  limiting  the  number  of  each  kind 
that  may  locate  in  cities  of  certain  sizes.  Such  regulations 
will  distribute  over  the  whole  state  industries  now  crowded 
together  and  will  afford  suburban  and  semi-rural  residences 
to  all  classes  of  workers,  thus  improving  their  condition  and 
the  productivity  of  the  factories,  and  increasing  the  general 
welfare  of  the  whole  state. 

Many  large  manufacturing  concerns  now  voluntarily 
locate  in  cities  distant  from  metropolitan  districts,  but  the 
bulk  of  the  medium  and  smaller  sized  concerns  still  collect 
in  the  large  cities,  producing  a  degree  of  congestion  which 
has  never  before  been  equalled. 

The  regulation  of  the  heights  of  buildings  is,  of  course, 
only  one  of  a  considerable  number  of  regulations  enforced 
abroad.  Among  other  important  ones  are  those  affecting 
the  ratio  of  the  area  of  the  building  to  that  of  the  lot,  the 
separation  of  buildings,  classes  of  buildings,  classes  of  areas 
between  buildings,  minimum  number  of  rooms  in  an  apart- 
ment, window  area,  height  of  ceilings  and  cubic  contents 
of  sleeping  rooms. 

Representative  figures  are  selected  which,  though  in 
many  cases  not  applicable  to  American  cities,  will  give  a 
good  idea  of  the  regulations  in  effect  abroad. 


176 


CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


The  area  of  the  lot  which  may  be  built  over  in  cities 
in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  the  regulations  of  which 
are  regarded  as  being  very  well  worked  out,  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  zone,  from  |  to  |  of  the  total  area.  In  the  outly- 
ing districts,  these  figures  are  reversed,  it  being  permissible 
to  build  only  over  from  i  to  |  of  the  total  area  of  the  lot. 

In  other  cities  the  regulations  vary,  being  about  on  the 
same  basis,  but  always  differing  in  accordance  with  the  zone. 

The  buildings  and  the  courts  are  divided  into  from  five 
to  nine  different  classes,  and  regulations  are  made  to  suit 


Fig.  52.   a  group  of  blocks  suitable  for  a  garden  city,  with 
ample  open  space  and  interior  courts 

each  class.  Such  regulations  go  into  the  greatest  detail, 
so  that  no  case  is  likely  to  arise  for  which  a  suitable  regula- 
tion is  not  to  be  found.  One  fault  with  American  regulations, 
such  as  have  been  adopted,  is  that  in  many  instances  they 
are  of  too  general  a  nature,  and  difficulty  is  therefore  ex- 
perienced in  applying  them  to  the  various  conditions  which 
arise  in  practice. 

The  regulations  abroad  in  regard  to  the  classes  of  build- 
ings which  are  used  as  workingmen's  homes  require  the 
apartment  used  by  a  family  to  consist  of  not  less  than  three 
rooms,  a  living  room,  a  sleeping  room  and  a  kitchen.     The 


BUILDING   REGULATIONS  177 

living  room  is  required  to  be  of  a  certain  size.  In  Wies- 
baden 75  square  feet,  throughout  Baden  107  square  feet,  in 
Karlsruhe,  130  square  feet,  in  Mannheim  160  square  feet, 
at  the  minimum.  In  the  latter  city,  the  kitchen  must  be 
not  less  than  130  square  feet  in  area.  There  are  also  re- 
quirements as  to  the  total  area  of  the  rooms,  which  in 
Diisseldorf,  Magdeburg  and  throughout  Saxony  must  be 
not  less  than  320  square  feet. 

The  height  of  the  rooms  is  generally  placed  at  not  less 
than  2.5  meters  or  8.2  feet,  while  the  window  area  must 
be  from  one-eighth  to  one-twelfth  of  the  area  of  the  floor, 
an  average  figure  being  one-tenth. 

The  minimum  cubic  contents  of  the  rooms  are  also 
fixed  by  regulation  at  from  250  to  700  cubic  feet,  being  in 
Baden  350  cubic  feet. 

The  regulations  as  to  space  not  built  upon  are  sometimes 
based  on  the  number  of  families  occupying  a  building.  In 
Altona  160  square  feet  per  family  must  be  left  open  in  the 
main  portions  of  the  city,  while  in  the  suburbs,  1100  square 
feet  per  family  must  be  left  open. 

Among  other  regulations  are  those  in  reference  to  light, 
there  being  provisions  to  the  effect  that  certain  windows  of 
buildings  shall  receive  light  at  angles  of  from  30  to  60 
degrees  over  the  walls  of  others,  but  these  regulations  are 
of  a  somewhat  complicated  nature  and  not  easily  applied. 
In  London,  the  right  of  "ancient  lights"  has  had  the  effect 
of  causing  theatres  to  be  built  practically  underground,  so 
that  the  highest  priced  seats  are  located  in  the  gallery  near 
the  street  level,  and  the  pit  is  far  below. 

Regulations  in  some  German  cities  extend  to  the  styles 
of  architecture.  For  example,  in  old  cities  which  were  once 
fortified,  such  as  Niirnberg,  all  buildings  within  the  ring  or 
location  of  the  old  fortifications  must  be  built  in  the  four- 
teenth century  style.  This  regulation  preserves  the  indi- 
viduality and  atmosphere  of  the  central  portion  of  the  city. 
In  Dresden,  in  certain  residential  districts,  a  peculiar  kind 
of  iron  fence  of  a  certain  height  and  design  is  required, 
which  gives  that  portion  of  the  city  a  decided  individuality. 


178  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

The   whims    of   householders,    thus,    are    not    permitted   to 
destroy  the  appearance  of  the  city 

In  German  cities  most  of  the  buildings  are  of  a  wholly 
or  partially  fireproof  construction,  and  as  their  height  is 
regulated  and  the  fire  department  service  unusually  speedy, 
the  greater  part  of  the  fire-escape  facilities  are  confined  to 
the  form  of  wide,  fireproof  stairways.  The  public,  in  addi- 
tion, is  much  more  careful  than  our  public  and  fires  are  thus 
much  less  frequent  in  occurrence. 

In  buildings  in  which  the  upper  floor  is  36  feet  above 
the  street,  two  stairways  are  usually  required,  though  in 
exceptional  instances  one  is  permitted. 

Every  portion  of  a  floor  must  be  within  98  feet  of  a 
stairway.  All  stairways  must  go  to  the  roof,  or  if  the  main 
stairway  does  not  go  to  the  roof  itself,  an  auxiliary  stairway 
at  least  2^  feet  wide  must  be  provided  to  the  roof. 

In  many  buildings,  the  stairs  are  in  stairway  houses, 
that  is  to  say,  alcoves  or  lean-tos  at  the  side  of  the  building, 
of  a  fireproof  construction.  The  shape  of  the  stair  halls  is 
regulated  and  under  some  circumstances  no  corner  is 
allowed. 

The  regulations  in  the  different  cities  vary  to  some  extent. 
In  some,  buildings  of  more  than  two  floors  above  the  street 
floor  must  have  two  staircases,  irrespective  of  their  floor 
area.  The  main  stairways  must  be  not  less  than  3f  feet 
in  width,  while  stairs  to  the  roof  and  basement  must  be 
3  feet  wide. 

In  schoolhouses  all  exits  must  be  in  courts  with  a  mini- 
mum width  of  30  feet  for  each  1000  children.  Each 
schoolroom  must  have  two  exits.  Stairways  must  be  2J 
feet  wide  for  each  100  persons  up  to  500,  If  feet  more  for 
each  100  persons  from  500  to  1000  and  1  foot  more  for 
each  100  persons  upward  of  1000  occupying  the  building. 
Thus  for  400  persons,  the  width  would  be  9  feet,  for 
800  persons  16  feet,  and  for  1200  persons  21  feet.  All 
stairways  over  10  feet  wide  are  required  to  have  a  railing 
in  the  center. 

One  familiar  with  German  cities  thus  sees  no  fire  escapes 


PLEASING   APPEARANCE    OF    LARGE    MANUFAC;i  t   HIM, 
IN    DUSSELDORF    AND    BERLIN 


m  ILDINGS 


Manufacturing  plants  located  within  or  near  ttie  cili/  shoulil  not  be  designed  to  serve 
utilitarian  purposes  only  but  should  enhance  the  surroundings 


DISTINCTIVE  ARCHITECTURAL  TREATMENT  OF  LARGE  DRV  GOODS  STORE 
BUILDINGS    IN    BERLIN    AND    DUSSELDORF 


BUILDING  REGULATIONS  179 

in  evidence,  and  in  the  recent  regulations  of  the  building 
departments  having  charge  of  such  matters,  no  specifica- 
tions of  fire  escapes  are  to  be  found,  all  requirements  on  the 
subject  being  in  reference  to  staircases,  the  principal  items 
of  which  have  just  been  outlined. 

There  are,  however,  numerous  balconies,  but  they  do 
not  have  the  unsightliness  of  American  fire  escapes,  as  they 
are  always  decorated  by  flowers  —  another  regulation. 

The  question  of  fire  escapes  in  tall  buildings  in  America 
is  one  of  great  difficulty.  It  is  impossible,  of  course,  to 
have  a  separate  stairway  from  each  floor  to  the  ground, 
but  with  a  single  fire-escape  stairway  from  a  number  of 
floors,  the  facilities  are  not  adequate. 

The  form  of  fire  escape  most  favored  is  that  of  the 
horizontal  type;  that  is,  some  means  of  escaping  into 
adjoining  buildings.  In  buildings  of  a  certain  area,  an 
excellent  form  of  fire  escape  is  to  have  the  whole  building 
divided  by  a  fire  wall  from  top  to  bottom,  extending  three 
feet  above  the  roof,  with  suitable  automatic  doors.  Fire 
in  one  side  of  the  building  cannot  then  communicate  to 
the  other  side,  while  there  is  ample  means  of  egress  for  all 
employees.  Only  half  of  an  employer's  business  can  thus 
be  destroyed.  A  similar  result  may  be  obtained  by  fire 
walls  between  buildings,  with  openings  in  them  closed  by 
automatic  doors,  every  establishment  for  manufacturing 
being  required  to  be  located  partially  in  one  building  and 
partially  in  the  adjoining  one. 

Not  only  are  regulations  applied  to  the  construction  of 
buildings  in  Germany,  but  also  to  the  manner  of  their  use, 
in  order  to  prevent  overcrowding.  Children  are  required  to 
occupy  separate  sleeping  rooms  and  on  reaching  the  age  of 
twelve  or  fourteen  years,  each  sex  must  also  have  its  own 
separate  sleeping  rooms.  Each  apartment  must  be  pro- 
vided with  its  own  toilet  facilities. 

There  is  a  decided  tendency  abroad  to  provide  individual 
houses  in  the  suburbs  for  workingmen,  and  in  England 
considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  this  subject.  Often 
where  it  is  not  feasible  to  provide  separate  dwellings,  two- 


180  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

family  houses  are  built.  Some  very  compact  and  well- 
planned  structures  of  a  very  low  cost  have  been  evolved. 

In  one  design  the  upper  floor  is  occupied  by  one  large 
sleeping  room  and  two  smaller  ones,  while  on  the  lower 
floor  is  a  main  living  room  which  also  serves  as  a  kitchen 
and  dining  room,  a  scullery  with  a  sink  and  a  bath  tub  hav- 
ing a  cover  used  ordinarily  as  a  table,  a  small  pantry,  and, 
entered  from  out  of  doors,  a  toilet  room  and  coal  storage 
bin.  The  whole  covers  an  area  of  450  square  feet.  Such 
houses  have  neither  garret  nor  basement,  and  the  streets 
upon  which  they  are  built  are  constructed  with  the  least 
expense,  thus  reducing  the  cost  of  housing  to  a  minimum. 

Colonies  of  such  houses  are  often  built  for  the  purpose 
of  housing  employees  of  a  large  concern,  such  as  at  Port 
Sunlight,  near  Liverpool,  a  colony  of  workmen  employed  at 
the  Sunlight  Soap  factories  owned  by  Lever  Bros.  Such 
colonies  are  often  in  the  form  of  garden  cities,  a  detailed 
description  of  which  wiU  be  given  in  a  later  chapter. 

Similar  colonies  are  frequently  found  in  Germany,  such 
as  at  Essen,  where  the  employees  of  the  Krupp  Company 
are  housed  in  a  manner  much  superior  to  that  employed  in 
England.  Among  the  features  at  Essen  are  chapels,  con- 
valescents' houses,  homes  for  widows  and  widowers,  etc. 

Many  colonies  are  built  by  building  and  loan  associa- 
tions, under  supervision  of  the  government  which  prevents 
speculation  and  overcharging. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  of  problems  in  connection  with 
the  design  of  buildings  in  congested  or  closely  built-up 
blocks,  is  to  provide  light  and  air  for  the  rear  rooms.  To 
obtain  a  suitable  circulation  of  air  is  even  more  trouble- 
some than  to  obtain  the  light. 

A  method  adopted  with  great  success  for  getting  the 
direct  circulation  of  air  in  blocks  is  to  leave  openings  at  the 
ends  of  the  blocks,  as  shown  in  some  of  the  accompanying 
illustrations,  which  are  of  blocks  in  English  and  German 
cities.  The  shaded  portions  represent  the  buildings,  the 
black  lines  are  the  lot  divisions  and  the  white  portions, 
gardens  or  open  spaces. 


BUILDING  REGULATIONS 


181 


In  Plan  A,  the  houses  face  all  four  sides  of  the  block, 
but  there  are  four  openings  at  the  rear  of  the  houses  on  the 
ends  of  the  block.  Blocks  of  this  kind  are  found  in  cities 
in  England,  Holland  and  in  some  German  cities,  notably 
Bremen,  while  an  occasional  New  York  block  has  some- 
times one  or  more  of  such  openings,  left  however  by  accident. 

Plan  C  represents  a  block  in  which  the  houses  only  face 
the  sides  of  the   block.     The  breeze  is  free  to  sweep   the 


(C) 

Figs.  53,  54  and  55.   typical  open  block  plans 

(a)  Type  of  Half  Open  System,  in  England,  Holland  and  Belgium,  (b)  Block  with 
Partly  Open  Sides,  (c)  Block  with  Open  Ends,  as  found  in  Mannheim  and  Posen, 
Germany 

entire  length  of  the  block,  there  being  no  houses  on  the  ends. 
Such  blocks  are  required  by  ordinance  in  the  cities  of 
Mannheim  and  Posen  in  Germany. 

Plan  B  is  suggested  as  an  ideal  block  by  the  Society  of 
Architects  of  Berlin.  The  houses  at  the  sides  of  the  block 
are  set  back  from  the  building  line  slightly,  affording  space 
for  lawns.  There  is  large  free  space  at  the  ends  of  the  block, 
thus  giving  ample  air  circulation  for  the  entire  block.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  block  is  well  laid  out,  with  offsets  in 
the  facades  of  the  buildings,  affording  a  variety  as  compared 
with  blocks  having  unrelieved  straight  lines.  A  succession 
of  such  blocks  should  prove  highly  effective. 


182  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

While  the  heavy  hnes  in  the  plans  indicate  property 
lines,  the  lots  are  not,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  American 
cities,  separated  by  tall  board  fences,  shutting  out  light  and 
air  and  offering  opportunities  for  the  collection  of  rubbish 
and  the  growth  of  weeds.  The  lots  are  separated  by  iron 
railings  or  with  mesh  netting  fences,  and  with  well-kept 
lawns  and  flower  beds,  the  interiors  of  the  blocks  are  in 
reality  small  parks,  pleasing  alike  to  all  the  residents. 

Since,  further,  as  in  many  German  cities,  the  backs  of 
the  houses  are  treated  in  just  as  elaborate  an  architectural 
manner  as  the  street  facades,  the  view  of  the  interior  of  a 
block  is  in  every  respect  similar  to  that  of  a  small  public 
park,  if  not  superior.  There  are  thus  no  back  yards  in  the 
American  sense,  with  their  ugliness  and  often  squalor.  In 
the  interiors  of  the  blocks  are  run  narrow  delivery  wagon 
streets,  a  convenience  very  different  from  the  alley  of  the 
western  American  city.  As  the  interiors  are  planted  with 
trees  and  have  grass  plots  and  flower  beds  as  indicated,  and 
as  floral  decorations  are  required  by  law  on  the  window 
sills  of  the  windows  looking  out  upon  such  interiors,  it  will 
be  realized  that  the  block  interiors  in  German  cities  have 
been  developed  to  a  point  undreamed  of  in  the  United  States. 

Many  other  examples  could  be  given  of  the  means 
whereby  European  building  regulations  are  used  for  the 
betterment  of  the  public,  but  space  will  not  permit.  The 
subject  is  a  most  extended  one  and  merits  the  most  com- 
plete study  by  city  officials  who  have  the  welfare  of  the 
public  at  heart. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

GARDEN  CITIES  AND  WORKINGMEN'S  COLONIES 

Principles  of  Garden  Cities;    Working  men's   Colonies; 

Social  Facilities;  Suburban  Gardening;  Housing 

Problems 

The  almost  invariable  desire  of  the  city  dweller  is  to 
have  a  place  in  the  country,  where  he  may  at  least  spend  the 
summer  months.  The  unrelieved  monotony  of  city  life, 
with  cramped  quarters,  absence  of  healthful  recreation  and 
sultry  temperatures  on  the  one  hand  and  the  love  of  nature 
and  the  desire  of  owning  a  home  on  the  other,  draw  people 
to  the  country.  Only  the  lack  of  transit  facilities  and  the 
time  that  must  be  lost  from  business,  prevents  a  vastly 
greater  proportion  of  the  population  from  having  their 
country  homes  and  their  plots  of  ground. 

Living  in  the  country  is  also  cheaper  as  well  as  more 
healthful,  particularly  for  children,  who  in  the  city  never 
have  the  chance  that  they  should  have  of  developing  robust 
constitutions. 

Yet  with  proper  regulation,  it  is  readily  feasible  to  pro- 
vide rural  homes  for  practically  all  who  desire  them. 

To  accomplish  the  greatest  results,  the  location  of  fac- 
tories should  be  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  authorities. 
As  long  as  private  owners  can  save  a  few  cents  by  grouping 
their  plants  together,  crowded  conditions  in  cities  will  con- 
tinue, but  when  the  general  good  comes  to  be  considered 
and  when  factories  must  be  located  on  the  outskirts  of  cities 
and  in  rural  districts,  the  mass  of  the  population  must  of 
necessity  be  drawn  out  of  the  congested  areas  to  find  more 
healthful  homes  in  the  vicinity  of  their  working  places. 

The  concentration  of  factories  also  being  prevented,  the 
suburban  and  country  homes  of  the  workers  would  be  of  a 


184 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


permanent  character,  without  increasing  real  estate  values 
compelling  their  abandonment. 

The  early  adoption  of  such  forms  of  regulation  is,  how- 
ever, unlikely  in  the  cities  of  the  United  States,  so  that 
except  in  the  case  of  factories  voluntarily  locating  in  out-of- 
town  districts,  any  remedies  that  may  be  suggested  must 
depend  upon  self-interest  for  their  adoption. 

Among  the  plans  which  have  been  carried  out  abroad 
and  in  the  United  States  to  a  limited  extent  are  those  of 
garden  cities,  workmen's  colonies  and  suburban  gardening. 


Fig.  56.   Liverpool  garden  suburb  of  twenty-five  acres,  with 
eleven  houses  per  acre 

The  garden  city  in  its  best  form  is  a  well-organized 
development,  in  which  from  100  to  500  homes  make  up  a 
unit,  which  is  intended  to  grow  little  if  any  larger.  When 
additional  demand  springs  up  for  quarters,  a  new  garden 
city  is  formed  elsewhere,  and  thus  the  identity  of  the  exist- 
ing one  is  preserved  indefinitely,  and  the  residents,  in  the 
expectation  of  spending  their  lives  in  their  own  homes,  have 
every  incentive  to  embellish  them  and  keep  their  grounds 
in  the  best  possible  condition. 

The  garden  city  in  plan  should  be  laid  out  in  the  sim- 
plest yet  most  attractive  manner.     There  being  no   traflTic 


GARDEN    CITIES  185 

of  any  consequence,  the  streets  should  be  planned  with  the 
degree  of  irregularity  which  insures  charm.  Some  of  the 
streets  should  be  winding,  while  the  straight  ones  should 
have  suitable  terminals.  Each  house  should  be  provided 
with  a  spacious  garden,  as  it  is  from  the  gardens  that  such 
cities  take  their  name.  Such  gardens,  though  partially 
devoted  to  vegetable  raising,  should  also  be  well  laid  out 
with  flower  beds,  and  the  whole  garden  city  should  be  sub- 
ject to  such  regulations  as  will  insure  sufficient  attention 
being  given  to  the  gardens  to  produce  the  intended  appear- 
ance. Grass  plots,  trees,  hedges,  shrubbery  and  arbors 
should  be  in  abundance  both  in  the  front  and  in  the  rear 
of  the  houses.  The  neglect  of  the  residents  should  not  be 
allowed  to  mar  the  appearance  of  the  city. 

The  houses  may  be  quite  simple  and  compact  in  design, 
such  as  have  been  described  in  the  previous  chapter,  but 
they  should  all  be  individual  in  character,  and  by  no  means 
the  frightful  rows  of  boxes  all  exactly  alike,  which  are  put 
up  for  workmen's  houses  in  most  rural  or  suburban  places 
devoted  to  such  purposes. 

The  economical  design  of  the  buildings  and  the  small 
expenses  for  streets  makes  the  housing  cost  small,  so  that 
the  rent  may  be  low,  or  the  workman  may,  in  a  reasonable 
length  of  time,  become  the  owner  of  his  own  home. 

Garden  cities  should  be  laid  out  within  easy  reach  of 
transit  facilities,  and  natural  advantages  of  site  should  be 
seized  whenever  possible,  to  give  individuality  and  charm 
to  the  plan. 

The  accompanying  diagrams  show  plans  of  garden  cities 
which  have  proven  very  successful  from  every  point  of  view, 
but  they  should  by  no  means  be  followed  as  patterns,  for 
each  garden  city  should  have  its  own  characteristics  and 
be  unlike  any  other. 

The  sanitary  provisions  of  the  garden  cities  should  be 
carefully  carried  out,  and  the  details  should  be  simple  but 
solid  in  construction  and  as  inexpensive  as  possible. 

A  garden  city  is  principally  a  place  of  residence,  and 
it  should  have  as  few  stores  as  possible,  only  those  of  the 


186  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

most   necessary   character   being   provided.     A   school   may 
be  the  only  building  of  a  public  character. 

In  garden  cities,  however,  which  are  larger  and  located 
in  a  more  or  less  isolated  position,  the  suburban  character 
is  lost  and  they  become  small  cities  and  should  be  accord- 
ingly provided  with  a  great  number  and  variety  of  stores 
and  public  buildings.  The  city  may  have  its  own  civic 
organization,  with  schools,  a  library,  churches,  museum, 
theatre  and  the  like  and  be  a  complete  civic  unit. 

Garden  cities  have  met  with  greater  success  in  England 
than  anywhere  else  as  yet,  although  a  greater  number  and 
variety  of  them  are  now  in  process  of  formation  in  Germany. 

The  principal  English  garden  cities  are  Port  Sunlight, 
near  Liverpool,  Bourneville,  near  Birmingham,  and  Letch- 
worth,  near  London,  while  the  leading  German  garden  city 
is  Hellerau,  near  Dresden.  The  numerous  workingmen's 
colonies  in  Germany  which  first  began  to  be  founded  about 
1863  are  earlier  prototypes  of  the  present  garden  cities,  but 
on  a  less  comprehensive  scale  and  with  less  open  ground. 

Garden  cities  are  organized  on  several  different  plans. 
Port  Sunlight  is  operated  by  a  soap  factory,  the  rents  being 
placed  on  a  basis  of  depreciation  and  taxes  only,  not  tak- 
ing into  account  the  value  of  the  land  and  the  capital 
invested. 

The  factory  regards  this  in  the  nature  of  profit  sharing 
with  its  employees  and  the  tenants  are  exclusively  employees 
and  their  families.     Port  Sunlight  covers  some  450  acres. 

At  Bourneville  the  situation  is  different,  and  although 
half  the  tenants  are  of  the  employees  of  the  concern,  any 
one  is  eligible  to  become  a  resident.  The  rents  are  higher, 
but  the  place  is  an  individual  entity  administered  by  an 
independent  corporation.  There  are  some  5,000  inhabitants 
in  Bourneville  who  occupy  925  houses.  The  village  covers 
612  acres  of  land  and  one-tenth  of  the  land  in  addition  to 
that  occupied  by  roads  and  gardens  is  reserved  for  parks 
and  recreation  grounds.  In  no  case  is  the  building  allowed 
to  cover  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  plot,  and  the  number 
of  houses  is  usually  from  seven  to  ten  per  acre. 


GARDEN    CITIES  187 

The  large  amount  of  ground  thus  left  open  permits  of 
vegetable  gardens,  the  produce  of  which  materially  lowers 
the  cost  of  living  of  the  householders.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  that  the  land  as  ordinarily  farmed  formerly  brought  a 
return  of  some  $25  per  acre,  but  that  as  now  utilized  it 
returns  a  product  valued  at  some  $150  per  acre  besides 
housing  at  the  rate  of  30  inhabitants  per  acre  in  the 
occupied  portions. 

Hellerau,  which  is  some  three  miles  from  Dresden  and 
which  covers  325  acres,  has  a  population  of  about  1,000, 
and  the  land  is  held  by  a  corporation  which  limits  its 
dividends  to  4  per  cent.  The  village  is  occupied  by  the 
employees  of  a  single  concern,  the  Deutsche  Werkstaeten 
fiir  Handwerkkunst,  the  chief  owner  of  which,  Karl  Schmidt, 
is  the  leading  spirit  of  the  Hellerau  improvement.  The 
building  is  largely  carried  on  by  the  Co-operative  Building 
Association  of  Hellerau,  which  secures  its  capital  at  low 
rates  from  the  governmental  insurance  funds.  These  enor- 
mous funds  are  thus  utilized  in  a  twofold  manner;  the 
principal  for  improving  housing  conditions  and  the  income 
for  the  amelioration  of  the  beneficiaries. 

The  garden  city  at  Letchworth  some  35  miles  from 
London  is  a  modern  city  of  7,500  inhabitants  with  49  indus- 
tries. It  is  an  independent  entity,  and  is  operated  by  a 
group  of  persons  who  have  limited  their  possible  dividends 
to  5  per  cent,  thus  ensuring  the  best  of  conditions  for  the 
residents.  The  maximum  number  of  houses  is  twelve  to 
an  acre  and  two-thirds  of  the  six  square  miles  of  the  place 
are  reserved  for  parks  and  similar  purposes. 

Another  interesting  example  will  be  found  in  Forest 
Hills  Gardens,  Long  Island,  N.Y.,  a  town  planning  enter- 
prise in  which  certain  trust  funds  have  been  invested;  and 
which  is  conducted  wholly  on  commercial  lines  as  it  is 
expected  that  a  fair  profit  will  be  earned  on  the  investment. 
As  a  real  estate  proposition  it  may  not  differ  much  from 
other  first-class  Long  Island  developments.  It  is  not  a 
garden  city  for  workingmen,  however,  being  intended  for 
persons  of  ampler  means. 


188  CITY   PLANNING   AND   MAINTENANCE 

The  main  points  in  the  general  layout  or  great  ground 
plan  are  the  direct,  ample,  convenient  thoroughfares,  the 
gently  curved  residence  streets,  so  laid  out  as  to  allow  for 
deep  front  gardens;  the  interior  parks  for  private  use  of 
residents,  and  the  large  amount  of  land  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  development  which  is  put  aside  for  common  use. 
Each  block  is  considered  as  a  unit  and  treated  as  such. 
This  separate  block  planning  gives  a  beauty  and  variety 
not  possible  with  the  ordinary  rectangular  block  plan. 

Unity  of  design  is  the  special  attraction  of  the  Gardens, 
and  this  unity  has  been  faithfully  adhered  to.  The  station, 
the  inn,  the  stores,  the  apartments,  and  the  houses  large  and 
small,  while  varying  in  treatment  and  material  are  all  har- 
monious in  design.  The  whole  place  has  an  atmosphere 
which  is  home-like,  refreshing,  and  distinguished.  Like  all 
other  high  class  suburban  developments,  the  individual  or 
free-standing  house  will  predominate,  but  an  attractive 
feature  of  the  building  plan  is  the  so-called  "Group  Build- 
ing." This  plan  makes  it  possible  to  buy  a  house  of  supe- 
rior construction  and  enduring  value  at  a  lower  price  for  the 
reason  that  the  land  can  be  used  more  economically  when 
the  houses  are  either  semi-detached  or  one  of  a  group  of 
three,  four,  six,  eight  or  ten  houses  set  contiguously  in  a  row. 
These  groups  and  rows  add  greatly  to  the  charm  and  variety 
of  the  building  scheme.  They  have  been  planned  so  as  to 
conform  to  the  land  and  road  contours  and  are  of  different 
sizes  and  prices,  with  varying  interior  arrangement  and 
architectural  treatment.  There  is  no  subject  upon  which 
the  developers  of  the  Gardens  have  laid  more  stress  than 
upon  the  value  of  the  common  use  of  land  as  a  factor  in 
community  life. 

When  the  plans  of  this  company  were  first  ofTicially 
made  public,  disappointment  was  expressed  that  the  enter- 
prise would  not  benefit  the  mechanic  or  day  laborer,  such  as 
the  English  development  at  Port  Sunlight.  This,  however, 
was  impracticable  owing  to  the  location  of  the  property,  the 
initial  cost  of  which  would  only  permit  of  the  upbuilding  of 
a  high  grade  residential  suburb.    The  Gardens  enjoy  the 


COURT   OF   WORKINGMEN  S    HOUSES 

WnrLinr/men's  coloni/.  Friederirhshnf.  at  the  Kriipp  Works,  Essen 


BUILDING    FOU    THU    AGED 
Altenhof  colony  at  the  Krupp  Works,  Essen 


^L'. 


GARDEN   CITIES  189 

distinction  of  being  the  first  example  in  America  of  a  town 
laid  out  in  advance  by  a  group  of  experts,  and  public 
interest  in  such  a  notable  piece  of  work  is  well  justified. 

These  examples  indicate  the  scope  of  the  garden  city 
idea  in  its  various  applications,  from  the  housing  of  the 
employees  of  a  single  factory  to  the  establishment  of  an 
independent  and  thriving  city. 

The  fundamental  theory  on  which  the  success  of  the 
undertakings  depends  is  in  a  general  way  the  limitation  of 
profits  on  the  capital  invested.  The  idea  is  now  only  in 
its  infancy  and  there  seems  to  be  no  doubt  of  its  rapid 
development;  indeed  it  is  easy  to  imagine  an  enormous 
expansion  of  it,  to  include  cities  of  great  population,  which 
should  in  time  come  to  rival  existing  cities  if  not  to  deplete 
their  population  and  bankrupt  their  greedy  private  owners. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  in  a  city  of  500,000  or  1,000,000 
population  in  which  the  interest  return  was  limited  to  5 
per  cent  on  the  land  and  building  investment  that  living 
conditions  would  be  so  vastly  better  than  they  are  in  present 
cities,  that  the  latter  would  suffer  materially  if  not  be  left 
entirely  stagnant.  Thus  the  garden  city  may  prove  to  be 
the  city  of  the  future  and  the  practical  means  of  carrying 
into  effect  the  benefits  of  the  single  tax  system. 

The  workingmen's  colonies,  which,  as  has  been  noted, 
were  the  prototypes  of  the  garden  cities,  had  their  origin 
in  the  workingmen's  quarters  established  by  the  Krupp 
Company  at  Essen,  beginning  in  1855  with  barracks  afford- 
ing lodging  and  board  for  200  men  to  start  with,  the  erec- 
tion in  1863  of  a  colony  of  160  dwellings  at  "Alt  West 
End,"  the  first  actual  colony  continuing  with  various  addi- 
tions to  the  present  time  until,  with  the  colonies  of  Westend 
Nordhof,  Baumhof,  Schederhof,  Cronenberg,  Alfredshof, 
Friedrichshof,  Margarethenhof,  Dalhauser  Heide,  Emscher- 
Lippe  and  Colony  Gaarden  and  the  miscellaneous  quarters 
in  Essen,  the  Krupp  Works  house  12,800  men  and  their 
families,  a  total  of  46,000  people. 

The  colony  Cronenberg,  the  largest  and  best  known,  was 
mainly  erected  in  the  years  1872  to  1874. 


190 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


The  buildings  are  partly  set  up  in  rows  of  three-storied 
houses  containing  30  to  40  dwellings  in  each  block  and  partly 
form  isolated  three-storied  semi-detached  houses  with  twelve 


Fig.  57.   plan  of  workingmen's  colony,  dahlhauser  heide, 

krupp  works 

dwellings,  six  of  them  accessible  from  each  gable  front.  The 
buildings  are  constructed  in  brick  or  quarry-stone  without 
ornaments,  and  are  surrounded  by  gardens  and  lawns. 
Throughout,  each  staircase  gives  access  to  six  dwellings,  to 


GARDEN   CITIES  191 

two  each  on  each  floor  from  a  small  landing,  through  a  pri- 
vate front  door.  The  streets  are  lined  with  trees  and  in 
the  midst  of  the  colony  is  a  spacious  park,  which  in  connec- 
tion with  the  gardens  surrounding  the  houses  gives  to  the 
whole  a  pleasant  aspect. 

Subsequent  to  1891,  204  additional  dwellings  were  erected 
so  that  the  entire  colony  contains  1,454  workmen's  dwellings 
of  two  or  three  rooms  and  some  up  to  six  rooms. 

From  1894  to  1899  the  principal  portions  of  Alfredshof 
and  Friedrichshof  were  erected,  and  in  the  erection  of  these 
colonies  aesthetic  as  well  as  practical  and  hygienic  considera- 
tions were  emphasized. 

The  plans  on  which  the  streets  are  laid  out,  the  varying 
positions  of  the  buildings  as  regards  the  streets,  the  provid- 
ing of  spacious  open  grounds,  the  application  of  a  handsome 
and  varied  architecture,  and  the  use  of  bright  coloring  in 
roofs  and  facades  lend  these  colonies  a  lively  and  most 
pleasing  aspect. 

In  fixing  the  ground  plan  of  the  several  dwellings,  allow- 
ance was  made  for  the  higher  standard  of  the  workman's 
life  at  present  and  accommodations  of  two  rooms,  therefore, 
were  altogether  abandoned,  and  sets  of  three  or  more  rooms 
were  only  admitted. 

Each  one-family  cottage  was  given  a  small  garden  and 
two  or  more  storied  houses  were  provided  with  verandas 
and  loggias,  to  afford  their  inhabitants  a  sitting  place  in  the 
open  air.     Each  kitchen  was  also  fitted  with  a  larder. 

The  first  lot  of  houses  in  Alfredshof  was  erected  on  the 
cottage  system  in  one,  two,  three  and  four  family  cottages, 
in  rows  of  a  small  number  of  houses  per  row. 

To  each  family-lodging  a  small  garden  is  attached.  The 
dwellings  in  the  semi-detached  or  double  semi-detached 
cottages  also  are  completely  separated,  each  family  having 
their  own  private  entrance  through  their  garden.  At  the 
entrance  of  each  dwelling  is  a  veranda. 

In  1899  building  in  the  Alfredshof  came  temporarily  to 
an  end.  When  it  was  resumed  in  1907,  the  ground  in  the 
meantime  had  become  too  dear  to  continue  the  cottage  sys- 


192  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

tern.  In  order  to  utilize  the  building  ground  more  ration- 
ally, and  to  provide  a  sufficient  number  of  dwellings  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  works,  in  answer  to  the  increased  num- 
ber of  hands,  a  more  compact  mode  of  building  had  to  be 
adopted. 

The  question  could  only  be  solved  by  the  several-storied 
house  let  out  in  flats,  which  at  the  same  time  afforded  the 
possibility  of  bringing  the  colony  architecturally  into  some 
harmony  with  the  town  houses  around.  The  houses  were 
arranged  in  blocks,  an  arrangement  already  adopted  in  the 
Friedrichshof.  By  an  artistic  grouping  of  the  blocks,  by 
leaving  sufficient  open  ground,  lawns  and  playgrounds  be- 
tween and  by  carefully  preserving  existing  trees  this  new 
part  of  the  Alfredshof  was  made  to  answer  all  modern  re- 
quirements as  regards  health  and  beauty. 

The  annual  rents  in  these  colonies  are: 

In  One-  In  Multiple- 
Family  House  Family  House 
For  a  three-room  dwelling         $47.50  to  $55.00  $42.50  to  $52.50 
"    "  four-room          "                  62.50                               55.00  "     60.00 
"    "  five-room          "                 75.00  "     96.00             65.00  "     70.00 

In  opposition  to  the  Altenhof  and  the  older  part  of  the 
Alfredshof  this  workmen's  colony  was  from  the  very  begin- 
ning erected  on  the  system  of  the  two  or  more  storied  house 
on  account  of  the  valuable  and  rather  limited  building 
ground.  Six  or  four  families  enter  their  residence  from  one 
common  staircase  and  three  or  two  families  have  one  laundry 
in  common.  But  apart  from  the  street  door  and  the  com- 
mon staircase,  each  dwelling  has  its  own  private  front  door 
on  the  landing. 

The  three  or  two  storied  houses  of  this  colony  are  united 
into  more  or  less  large  blocks,  which  are  grouped  around 
squares  and  playgrounds,  so  that  light  and  fresh  air  is 
abundant;  the  trees  and  shrubs  besides  afford  a  gay  and 
pleasant  aspect. 

The  Friedrichshof  affords  altogether  accommodations  for 
523  families.     The  annual  rents  are: 


GARDEN   CITIES 


193 


For  a  flat  of  three  rooms  $43.75  to  $52.25 
"    "    "    "  four        "        53.75  "     60.00 
"  five         "        63.75  "     68.75 


C£  (t         (( 


In  addition  to  the  regular  housing  accommodations  there 
are  special  structures  for  aged  and  infirm  persons,  widows, 
widowers  and  orphans,  and  there  are  also  hospitals,  con- 
valescent homes  and  the  like,  affording  complete  accommo- 
dations for  all  classes  of  the  population. 

The  Krupp  Company,  although  the  first  to  establish  and 


Fig.  58.   great  ground  plan  of  the  garden  city,  port  sunlight, 

ENGLAND 

the  largest  operators  of  such  colonies,  is  by  no  means  alone  in 
the  field,  as  numerous  other  German  works  have  followed  the 
example  and  all  over  Germany  workingmen's  colonies  and 
garden  cities  are  either  projected  or  are  already  in  existence. 
A  plan  which  affords  a  residence  in  the  country  during  the 
summer  months  in  an  economical  manner,  is  that  of  subur- 
ban gardening.  The  family  living  in  the  city  rents  a  space 
in  the  suburbs  within  easy  reach  of  the  city  and  uses  the 
garden  for  raising  vegetables  and  as  a  more  or  less  elaborate 
camping  ground. 


194  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Either  a  tent  or  a  simple  summer  house  is  put  up,  afford- 
ing merely  facilities  for  sleeping  and  cooking.  The  members 
of  the  family  who  are  not  compelled  to  go  to  the  city  daily, 
may  thus  spend  the  entire  summer  in  the  open  air. 

Such  summer  houses  may  be  of  the  most  inexpensive 
construction,  but  should  be  tastefully  designed  and  pleas- 
antly placed.  They  may  with  advantage  be  constructed  of 
narrow  vertically  placed  sheeting  or  lath,  like  pickets  on 
a  fence,  the  inner  row  spaced  alternately  with  the  outer 
row,  so  that  privacy  may  be  preserved  while  at  the  same 
time  a  perfectly  free  circulation  of  air  is  afforded.  Such 
structures  may  be  put  up  at  an  expense  of  not  more  than 
fifty  dollars  or  so. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  large  cities  on  the  seaboard, 
areas  along  the  beaches  are  frequently  devoted  to  small 
colonies  of  tents,  which  are  used  merely  for  sleeping  pur- 
poses, food  being  usually  obtained  at  near-by  seaside  restau- 
rants. Such  places,  however,  afford  only  the  recreation  of 
the  beach  and  are  without  the  advantages  of  the  permanency 
and  varied  nature  of  suburban  or  rural  gardening. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  procure  pure  water  at  such 
summer  homes,  since  illness  may  result  from  carelessness  in 
this  respect. 

Suburban  gardens  may  readily  be  laid  out  with  little  or 
no  expense  near  cities  of  any  size,  though  they  will  prove 
most  attractive  near  the  larger  cities. 

In  the  garden  cities  and  workmen's  colonies  in  which 
residence  throughout  the  year  is  permanent,  a  highly  de- 
sirable feature  will  be  the  consumers'  union,  described  in 
another  chapter.  None  of  the  ordinary  small  merchants 
should  be  allowed  to  begin  business  in  the  city,  unless  they 
carry  lines  not  intended  to  be  carried  by  the  consumers' 
union.  In  this  way,  the  union  will  know  just  what  demand 
it  will  have  to  supply  and  can  make  its  purchases  accord- 
ingly. Being  operated  for  the  benefit  of  the  public,  it  is  in 
the  interest  of  the  public  that  there  should  be  no  competition. 

The  consumers'  union  may  be  operated  either  by  the  cor- 
poration,  by  the  building  association   or  by  the  residents 


GARDEN    CITIES  195 

themselves,  but  in  any  case  it  should  be  entirely  in  the 
interests  of  the  public,  as  the  plan  of  company's  stores,  where 
operated  for  the  profit  of  the  company  employing  the  work- 
man, quickly  becomes  a  source  of  oppression  and  a  breeder 
of  discontent.  Such  stores  are  in  bad  odor  in  the  United 
States  and  the  practice  is  one  which  has  been  discontinued 
by  many  companies. 

The  interests  both  of  the  companies  and  of  the  workmen, 
where  such  company  stores  are  still  in  operation,  would  be 
served  by  transforming  them  into  consumers'  unions. 

In  the  absence  of  municipal  regulation,  companies  which 
at  present  have  their  workingmen  living  in  colonies,  could 
accomplish  much  by  supervising  the  grounds  and  gardens  of 
their  workmen's  homes.  By  a  system  of  small  bonuses, 
depending  on  the  well-kept  condition  of  the  grounds,  or  by  a 
number  of  prizes,  the  men  could  be  encouraged  to  improve 
their  surroundings,  and  the  interest  thus  taken  by  the  em- 
ployers in  the  workmen  would  beget  a  similar  interest  in  the 
workman  in  his  employer's  work.  The  better  understanding 
thus  reached  could  not  fail  to  be  of  mutual  benefit. 

One  of  the  objections  to  garden  cities  and  workingmen's 
colonies  in  the  United  States  is  the  feeling  of  dependence 
that  is  implied.  The  individual  seems  to  feel  that  by  living 
in  such  surroundings  he  is  making  himself  a  chattel  of  the 
company.  It  is  as  if  he  were  bound  more  securely  in  the 
chains  of  industrial  servitude. 

In  Germany  a  wholly  different  feeling  prevails.  The 
workman  takes  a  greater  personal  interest  in  his  work;  he 
expects  to  remain  with  the  company  a  long  period  of  years 
and  he  feels  a  sense  of  loyalty  to  the  company's  interests 
that  is  only  felt  in  the  United  States  by  partners  in  the 
business. 

To  attain,  therefore,  the  greatest  success  with  garden 
cities,  it  is  advisable  to  either  give  the  employees  a  co- 
operative interest  in  the  business,  or  to  limit  the  number  of 
employees  in  any  one  factory  who  may  live  in  any  one  gar- 
den city,  so  that  the  garden  city's  population  will  be  made 
up  of  employees  of  a  number  of  different  factories.     This 


196 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


O" 


I 

IJPfULT    wu:  ""■ 

1 

I 


Figs.  59  and  60.     an  English  workingman's  home 
IN  a  garden  city 


GARDEN  CITIES  197 

would  serve  to  free  the  workman  of  the  feehng  that  he  be- 
longed too  much  to  his  employer. 

As  a  rule  it  is  best  for  the  city  itself  to  establish  its  own 
outlying  garden  cities,  rather  than  to  leave  the  matter  to 
private  initiative.  A  more  comprehensive  and  better  related 
system  will  result. 

For  such  purposes,  it  is  advisable  for  the  city  to  acquire 
land,  and  while  this  is  not  feasible  for  American  cities  at 
present,  owing  to  lack  of  constitutional  authority,  no  doubt 
this  condition  will  soon  be  remedied.  German  cities  are 
large  owners  of  land.  Berlin  owns  some  40,000  acres,  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  outside  the  city  limits.  Munich  has 
14,000  acres  and  Breslau  12,000  or  some  20  square  miles. 
Such  lands  include  forests,  and  German  cities  are  among  the 
largest  owners  of  forests  in  the  world,  while  additions  are 
constantly  being  made  to  their  belongings. 

According  to  Mr.  Frederic  C.  Howe,  writing  in  Scribner's 
Magazine,  May,  1910: 

"Fifteen  hundred  small  towns  and  villages  in  Germany 
derive  so  much  revenue  from  the  lands  they  own  that  they 
are  free  from  all  local  taxes.  Five  hundred  of  these  com- 
munities are  not  only  free  from  all  land  taxes,  but  are  able 
to  declare  a  dividend  of  from  $25  to  $100  a  year  to  each 
citizen  as  his  share  of  the  earnings  of  the  common  land." 

The  expropriation,  thus,  of  lands  likely  to  increase  in 
value,  is  an  obligation  which  the  public  owes  to  itself,  and 
one  which  it  should  not  hesitate  to  assume. 

An  excellent  example  of  the  extent  to  which  a  city  may 
profitably  go  in  solving  the  housing  problems  of  its  citizens 
is  seen  in  the  German  city  of  Ulm,  in  Wurttemburg.  The 
city  is  an  important  manufacturing  center  with  about  56,000 
inhabitants,  and  the  municipality  now  owns  80  per  cent  of 
all  real  estate  in  and  around  the  city. 

The  old  fortifications  were  sold  to  the  municipality  in 
1902,  and  the  authorities  immediately  seized  upon  the  op- 
portunity to  organize  a  very  liberal  city  planning  and 
housing  system.  When  the  inner  walls  were  transferred  to 
the  city  the  ground  outside  these  limits  naturally  rose  in 


198  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

value.  In  view  of  the  city's  great  undertaking,  combined 
with  the  large  outlay  in  buying  the  fortress,  for  razing  and 
removing  the  walls,  and  for  the  building  of  many  new  streets, 
the  authorities  had  decided  that  these  improvements  could 
be  made  on  the  sole  condition  that  the  city  treasury  and 
not  the  former  proprietors  of  the  land  should  benefit  by  the 
great  rise  in  real  estate.  With  this  object  in  view  the  town 
council  began  buying  up  land  as  early  as  1891.  At  the  close 
of  the  year  1908-9  nearly  1,210  acres  had  been  purchased 
at  a  total  cost  of  $1,398,640.  Of  this  land  405  acres  had 
been  sold  for  $1,623,924,  so  that  the  municipality  had 
profited  $234,284,  and  still  owned  805  acres.  In  addition, 
the  disused  fortress,  covering  172  acres,  was  bought  for 
$952,000  and  $595,000  was  spent  in  purchasing  houses  in 
the  old  part  of  the  town  in  order  to  improve  sanitary 
conditions.     In  all,  the  city  now  owns  4,942  acres. 

The  principal  points  in  the  plan  for  developing  the  city 
were:  To  make  direct  roads  from  the  gates  of  the  old  wall 
to  the  main  roads  leading  to  all  parts  of  the  country;  to 
connect  the  suburb  Soeflingen  by  direct  new  thoroughfares 
with  the  city  proper;  to  build  boulevards  within  the  walls; 
and  to  build  a  freight  station  west  of  Ulm  within  easy  reach 
of  the  city. 

It  then  remained  to  divide  and  parcel  out  the  land,  which 
was  done  as  follows:  The  valley  between  Ulm  and  Soe- 
flingen was  reserved  for  all  kinds  of  trade,  small  industries, 
and  dwelling  houses  for  the  general  population.  In  order  to 
economize  space,  it  was  decided  to  build  in  rows,  v/ith 
space  between  the  buildings.  For  large  manufacturing 
plants,  land  was  reserved  east  of  Soeflingen,  connected  with 
the  freight  station  by  a  railway  line  constructed  by  the  town. 
The  same  will  be  done  east  of  Ulm.  For  workpeople  and 
peasantry  of  the  suburb  Soeflingen,  land  was  allotted  in 
the  northeast  of  Soeflingen  —  the  houses  to  be  built  at 
intervals  of  17  feet;  for  ordinary  family  houses,  the  hill  in 
the  south  of  Soeflingen  —  the  houses  to  be  23  feet  apart; 
for  villas  and  more  pretentious  houses,  the  hill  west  of  Ulm 
with  houses  at  intervals  of  33  feet;    for  people  of  the  more 


GARDEN  CITIES  199 

prosperous  class,  the  "Michelsberg,"  a  sunny  hill  north  of 
Ulm  —  distance  between  houses  to  be  147  feet.  The  woods 
east  of  Ulm  afford  ample  opportunity  for  recreation  and 
sport.  Land  east  of  Frienrichsau,  near  the  Danube,  has 
been  reserved  for  a  future  harbor. 

Extensive  ownership  of  land  enables  the  city  to  keep 
prices  within  reasonable  limits  and  to  furnish  land  at  a 
very  moderate  rate  for  undertakings  of  public  interest,  for 
manufacturing  purposes,  houses  for  workmen,  etc.  Persons 
purchasing  land  of  the  city  must  agree  to  build  on  it  within 
a  given  number  of  years,  the  city  having  the  right  to  buy 
back  such  land  at  the  price  originally  paid  for  it,  including 
3  per  cent  interest.  Ground  for  the  erection  of  workmen's 
houses  can  always  be  had  at  a  very  moderate  price,  but 
solely  on  conditions  excluding  personal  profit  or  speculation. 

The  city  itself  has  built  175  houses  with  291  flats  for 
1,367  inhabitants  on  the  following  conditions:  the  city  builds 
the  houses  and  the  purchaser  pays  the  net  price,  10  per  cent 
down  and  the  rest  at  3  per  cent  interest  and  2  per  cent  on 
mortgages.  In  order  to  secure  for  the  future  low  prices  for 
the  houses  and  low  renting,  the  city  is  authorized  within 
100  years  to  take  back  the  houses  at  the  original  purchase 
price  if  the  owner  is  unable  to  pay  the  interest;  if  he  does 
not  live  in  the  house,  but  sublets  it;  or  if  he  wishes  to  sell 
the  house. 

Other  houses  built  under  the  foregoing  conditions  have 
been  erected  by  companies,  societies,  etc.  The  Society  An- 
onyme  Wohnungsverein  has  constructed  18  buildings,  with 
62  flats,  at  a  cost  of  $53,274.  Flats  of  two  rooms  rent  for 
$41.65  per  year,  while  three-room  flats,  with  kitchen,  etc., 
bring  $57.12.  Shareholders  are  restricted  to  4  per  cent  in- 
terest on  their  capital.  In  houses  built  by  the  Savings  & 
Building  Co.,  two-room  flats  rent  for  $52.36  and  three-rooms, 
with  kitchen,  etc.,  bring  $59.50  to  $90.44.  The  Unlimited 
Building  Co.  builds  houses  for  letting  to  members.  The 
ground  remains  the  property  of  the  city,  which  after  70  years 
is  obliged  to  buy  the  houses  for  80  per  cent  of  the  building 
value.     The  houses  contain  5  to  10  rooms  and  cost  $3,808  to 


200  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

$7,140  without  ground.  The  Kingdom  of  Wurttemberg,  the 
postal  administration,  and  several  industrial  works  have 
built  houses  for  employees.  Altogether,  since  1891,  388 
buildings,  with  1,006  flats  for  5,000  inhabitants,  have  been 
built  on  condition  that  the  letting  price  cannot  be  increased 
whenever  the  price  of  land  rises. 


CHAPTER   XV 

CIVIC  CULTURE 

Schools;    Churches;   Theatres;    Museums;    Art  Galleries; 
Libraries;  Concert  Halls 

The  planning  of  a  city  includes  not  only  the  arrangement 
of  its  streets,  the  construction  of  engineering  features  and 
the  erection  of  public  buildings,  but  also  the  provision  for 
such  structures  and  systems  as  may  be  better  performed  by 
the  city  as  a  whole  than  by  its  individuals,  and  which  are 
intended  for  the  purpose  of  inculcating  that  degree  of  civic 
culture  which  will  enable  the  citizen  to  understand  and 
appreciate  and  enjoy  the  advantages  provided  by  the  city. 

Such  factors  of  civic  culture  include  schools,  libraries,  art 
galleries,  museums,  theatres,  concerts  and  the  like,  and  the 
city  should  not  only  erect  suitable  structures  for  these  pur- 
poses, but  should,  where  supplementary  systems  are  conducted 
by  private  interests,  regulate  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause 
them  to  take  a  proper  place  in  the  city's  scheme. 

Schools  should  be  so  located  as  to  be  accessible  to  the 
pupils  and  sufTiciently  numerous  and  so  placed  that  the 
pupils  have  but  short  distances  to  go  to  reach  them.  School 
buildings  should,  of  course,  be  provided  with  ample  light, 
ventilation  and  heating  facilities.  Playgrounds  of  ample 
capacity  should  be  set  apart,  and  staircases  should  be  wide 
enough  to  afTord  easy  access  to  all  schoolrooms.  As  obvious 
as  these  requirements  will  appear,  it  is  nevertheless  true  that 
great  numbers  of  schools  do  not  meet  them. 

High  schools,  normal  schools,  institutes  and  city  colleges, 
as  they  are  comparatively  few  in  number  and  attended  by 
pupils  often  living  at  a  distance,  should  be  located  at  centers 
of  traffic.  The  buildings  should  be  of  a  monumental  char- 
acter on  sites  with  suitable  grounds  or  approaches.     Such 


202 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


buildings  thus  become  part  of  the  city's  plan  and  their 
dignity  and  imposing  character  favorably  affect  both  the 
pupils  and  the  general  public. 

Art  galleries  and  museums  should  also  be  provided  by  the 
city.  Although  philanthropists  often  find  in  such  buildings 
a  means  of  contributing  to  the  public  welfare,  it  is  neverthe- 
less a  duty  which  a  city  should  not  neglect  in  the  expectation 
of  such  benefaction. 

Such  structures  should,  of  course,  be  of  the  highest  aesthe- 
tic significance,  and  should  be  located  in  open  squares  or 


Fig.  61.  proposed  remodelling  of  oscar  plaza  at  reinickendorfer 
street,  berlin,  with  a  church  as  a  focal  point 

parks,  and  though  accessible  to  traffic,  they  should  be  some- 
what removed  from  the  main  avenues  of  turmoil. 

Libraries  and  concert  halls  should  likewise  be  monu- 
mental structures,  with  proper  approaches,  but  they  should 
be  located  convenient  to  residential  traffic. 

Since  in  order  to  produce  the  best  effects  of  city  design, 
commercial  and  private  buildings  must  be  subject  to  muni- 
cipal regulation,  it  is  also  necessary  that  a  similar  control  be 
exercised  over  churches.  While  in  the  United  States,  a 
complete  separation  of  church  and  state  exists,  and  the  in- 
terference of  a  municipality  with  the  affairs  of  a  church  may 


CIVIC   CULTURE 


203 


be  resented,  as  much  by  the  non-rehgious  part  of  the  com- 
munity as  by  the  membership;  it  would  be  ridiculous  not  to 
require  the  conformation  of  buildings  of  usually  such  a 
prominent  character  with  the  plan  of  the  city. 

Churches  may  indeed,  in  many  cities,  owing  to  their 
tower-like  structure,  be  utilized  as  objectives  at  focal  points 
and  otherwise  be  made  distinctive  features  of  the  city's 
plan.  When  great  churches  are  to  be  erected,  they  should 
only  be  allowed  to  be  placed  at  such  localities  as  will  cause 


Fig.  62.   vendome  plaza,  paris,  a  square  with  but  two  entrances, 
the  center  of  which  is  occupied  by  a  tall  column 

them  to  best  harmonize  with  the  city's  plan  and  produce  the 
greatest  effect. 

Inasmuch  as  churches  are  the  beneficiaries  of  the  state  to 
the  extent  that  they  are  free  from  taxation,  it  is  appropriate 
that  they  should  be  so  erected  as  to  best  harmonize  with  the 
city's  plan.  If  churches  paid  taxes  and  the  money  was  de- 
voted to  the  embellishment  of  the  city,  some  very  important 
improvements  could  be  made,  which  are  now  foregone. 

Theatres  are  another  class  of  buildings  which  should  be 
of  a  character  adapted  to  embellish  the  city,  and  to  beautify 
the  localities  in  which  they  are  placed,  and  the  same  is  true 
of  opera  houses  and  privately  owned  concert  halls. 

The  influences  of  the  theatre  and  music  are  among  the 
most  important  of  the  cultural  agencies,  and  the  added 
dignity  and  prestige  to  such  arts  of  being  located  in  monu- 


204 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


mental  structures  would  augment  their  effects  and  amplify 
their  usefulness. 

In  the  state  and  city  owned  theatres  of  European  coun- 
tries, an  excellent  example  is  set  for  other  countries,  as  such 
theatres  are  an  artistic  inspiration  both  to  the  public  and  to 

the  artists.  This  state  and  civic  sanction 
and  support  places  the  work  of  the  theatre 
on  a  higher  plane,  and  such  recognition 
of  its  value  and  importance  stirs  its  per- 
sonnel to  great  endeavors  and  gives  its 
work  added  authority  with  the  public. 
A  state  or  municipal  owned  theatre 
-  -    will  obviously  be  of  a  monumental  charac- 

tJ        _  ter,  as  the  question  of  expense  does  not 

restrict  the  design  or  location  of  the 
building.  Such  a  theatre  will  be  so  placed 
as  to  be  an  ornament  to  the  city  and  the 
center  of  its  amusement  district.  The 
commercial  theatres  may  be  arranged 
with  reference  to  it  and  in  some  instances 
church  as  the  focal  point  of  it  may  be  feasible  to  have  such  structures 
a  number  of  streets  arranged  about  a  square  or  small  park. 

With  the  setting  of  the  trees,  lawns  and  fountains  and  an 
artistically  planned  system  of  illumination,  an  especially  in- 
teresting feature  of  the  city  would  thus  be  created. 

One  of  the  leading  examples  among  American  theatres 
of  a  monumental  character  is  the  present  Century  Theatre  in 
New  York,  formerly  called  the  New  Theatre,  which  faces 
Central  Park,  but  which  enjoys  only  a  fairly  good  location. 
Occasionally  a  theatre  with  an  admirable  exterior  will  be 
found,  but  its  surroundings  are  usually  such  as  to  detract 
from  whatever  beauty  it  may  possess.  American  theatre 
interiors,  however,  are  usually  of  a  much  more  pleasing  effect 
than  the  exteriors,  and  the  comfort  and  enjoyment  of  the 
audience,  once  inside,  is  well  provided  for.  The  high  cost  of 
real  estate,  however,  usually  forces  the  theatre  into  the 
interior  of  blocks,  with  only  a  narrow  and  ugly  street  front- 
age.    This  circumstance,  however,  is  not  so  discouraging  to 


Fig.  63.   plan  of  the 
cathedral  at  ulm 

An  excellent  example  of 
the  location  of  a  prominent 


CITY    THEATRE,    FRANKFOKT 


OPERA    HOUSE,     FRANKFORT 

Municipally  fnslcrcfl  cnlcrprises  for  the  proinolinn  of  civic  culture,  not  manaycd 

by  the  city,  but  given  subsidies  amounting  to  $75,000  annually 


CATHEDRAL    AT    COLOGNE,    GERMANY 

{Largest  and  lalh-sl  church  in  the  world) 

Ilhislraling  the  use  of  churches  dominating  centers  and  as  focal  points  of  streets 


CIVIC   CULTURE  205 

the  aesthetic  sensibiUties  of  the  pubUc  as  might  be  the  case 
if  the  civic  culture  of  the  pubUc  had  been  developed  to  a 
greater  extent. 

The  results  of  the  aesthetic  and  ethical  influences  which 
go  to  make  up  what  may  be  termed  civic  culture,  are  of 
such  importance  to  the  city  and  its  public,  that  the  greatest 
encouragement  should  be  given  to  such  subjects.  The 
results  obtained  in  European  cities,  the  beauty  and  effective- 
ness of  their  plans  and  operations,  indicate  what  may  be 
accomplished  in  America,  where  the  results  will  in  time,  when 
the  public  is  fully  awakened,  undoubtedly  be  much  greater, 
since  the  wealth  and  natural  resources  to  be  drawn  upon  are 
so  much  more  extensive. 

The  trend  towards  civic  culture  is  inevitable,  though 
slow,  and  an  example  of  it  is  seen  in  the  gradual  absorption 
by  America  of  the  greatest  of  the  works  of  art  of  Europe, 
the  cultural  effect  of  which  will  be  exerted  upon  future 
generations  of  this  country's  citizens  rather  than  those  of 
other  countries. 

In  the  presence  of  such  great  examples,  it  behooves  us, 
however,  to  create  our  own  schools  and  develop  our  own 
talent,  and  in  every  possible  way  to  promote  the  civic  cul- 
ture of  the  whole  body  of  citizens. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

ADMINISTRA  TI VE  F UNCTIONS 

Hospitals;  Poorhouses,  Lodging  Houses  and  Rescue  Homes; 
Orphan  Asylums;  Homes  for  Widows  and  the  Aged  and 
Infirm;  Police  and  Fire  Departments 

Among  the  functions  of  the  administration  of  a  city  are 
those  which  relate  to  the  care  of  the  unfortunate,  the  guard- 
ing of  persons  and  property,  the  correction  of  the  delinquent, 
the  prevention  of  extortion  and  the  enlarging  of  the  ideas  of 
civic  duties,  and  the  supplying  of  the  public  with  various 
commodities  which  cannot  otherwise  be  so  advantageously 
obtained. 

A  city  should  be  provided  with  an  ample  number  of 
hospitals,  either  of  city,  private  or  denominational  founda- 
tion, and  when  such  hospitals  are  not  controlled  by  the  city, 
the  city  should  at  least  have  a  considerable  degree  of  juris- 
diction over  them,  particularly  as  most  hospitals  are  tax 
exempt.  As  cities  are  not  usually  provided  with  ambu- 
lances, and  there  is  thus  no  official  means  of  caring  for  those 
who  may  meet  with  accident  or  sickness  on  the  streets,  it 
should  be  the  duty  of  each  hospital  to  care  for  the  stricken 
on  the  streets  in  their  locality. 

The  entire  organization  of  hospitals  in  the  United  States 
is  one  which  is  founded  largely  on  false  assumptions  and 
conducted  without  a  proper  conception  of  the  true  relation 
of  the  hospitals  to  the  public. 

A  great  number  of  hospitals  are  founded  on  an  insufficient 
endowment  fund  and  are  constantly  appealing  for  possible 
philanthropic  aid,  and  at  the  same  time  charging  patients 
for  the  service  extended,  usually  much  more  than  it  is 
worth.  Thus  though  the  recipients  of  charity  on  one  side, 
they  employ  it,  on  margin  so  to  speak,  on  the  other,  to 


ADMINISTRATIVE   FUNCTIONS  207 

enable  them  to  have  a  larger  plant  than  they  can  readily 
afford  in  order  to  accommodate  more  paying  patients. 
Unless  the  patient  is  willing  to  pay  a  high  rate,  equivalent 
to  that  charged  by  doctors  in  private  practice  where  ex- 
penses are  larger  and  charges  naturally  higher,  he  is  regarded 
as  a  charity  or  semi-charity  patient,  and  suffers  offense  and 
humiliation  in  a  psychological  sense  and  very  likely  an 
inferior  degree  of  attention  and  service  in  physiological  sense. 

This  is  all  entirely  wrong.  A  hospital  operated  on  funds 
donated  by  a  philanthropist  is  no  more  a  charitable  institu- 
tion than  a  university  which  is  supported  by  an  endowment 
given  by  philanthropists.  The  sons  of  the  wealthy  attend 
universities  and  enjoy  the  benefits  of  such  philanthropy 
without  the  stigma  of  being  charity  students,  but  hospitals, 
operating  under  exactly  similar  conditions  in  treating 
patients,  assume  that  they  are  dispensing  charity.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  philanthropists  are  actuated  more  in  making 
such  donations  by  a  desire  to  perpetuate  their  own  names 
than  by  motives  of  charity,  and  the  manner  of  use  made  of 
their  funds  by  many  hospital  authorities  is  such  that  public 
policy  would  be  better  served  by  making  all  hospitals  purely 
municipal  in  character. 

In  any  event,  hospitals  should  be  subject  to  a  close 
degree  of  municipal  supervision,  and  such  practices  as  are 
improper  should  be  prevented,  such,  for  example,  as  the 
transferring  of  persons  in  a  dying  condition  to  municipal 
hospitals  from  the  semi-philanthropic  hospitals  in  order  that 
the  latter  may  show  a  lower  death  rate.  Denominational 
hospitals,  also,  as  a  condition  of  their  establishment,  should 
be  required  to  admit  patients  without  regard  to  creed. 

The  health  of  its  citizens  so  largely  concerns  the  city 
that  hospitals  should  be  compelled  to  recognize  the  require- 
ments of  public  policy  and  be  brought  to  realize  that  in  no 
possible  sense  are  they  dispensers  of  charity. 

The  location  of  the  hospital  buildings  should  be  as  de- 
termined by  the  city  authorities,  and  they  should  be  of  such 
size  as  to  accord  with  the  plans  of  the  city.  The  structures 
should  be  properly  laid  out,  of  fireproof  construction,  and 


208  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

situated  in  suitable  grounds,  which  should  partake  more  or 
less  of  the  character  of  small  parks. 

Comparatively  few  hospitals,  however,  should  be  located 
in  the  city  limits.  Patients  suffering  from  chronic  com- 
plaints and  convalescents  should  be  in  hospitals  in  the 
country  or  at  least  in  the  suburbs,  both  for  their  own  benefit 
and  on  account  of  the  lower  investment  required  in  building 
the  hospitals. 

The  same  is  true  of  relief  institutions  such  as  orphan 
asylums,  homes  for  the  aged  and  infirm,  widows'  homes, 
rescue  homes,  poorhouses,  and  asylums  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  feeble-minded  and  insane. 

The  duty  of  the  municipality  and  the  state  towards 
these  classes  is  one  that  deserves  the  most  complete  per- 
formance, not  only  in  their  own  interests,  but  in  the  interests 
of  the  public  at  large.  Institutions  of  such  character  are 
best  located,  as  has  been  said,  in  the  rural  districts,  as  the 
room  they  occupy  in  cities  can  be  much  better  used  for 
other  purposes.  They  should,  of  course,  be  subjected  to  the 
most  rigid  supervision  by  the  authorities,  not  limited  to 
occasional  visits  of  trustees,  since  abuses  quickly  arise  and 
are  difficult  to  check.  Particularly  should  institutions  of  a 
rescue  character  to  which  inmates  are  legally  committed  but 
which  exist  by  private  charitable  donations,  be  subject  to 
supervision,  as  such  inmates  are  often  detained  rather  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  the  staff  to  have  an  excuse  for  appealing 
for  funds  and  drawing  salaries  than  for  the  good  of  their 
charges  or  the  public. 

In  the  protection  of  persons  and  property  and  the  punish- 
ment of  delinquents,  the  city  performs  one  of  its  basic 
functions,  and  one  in  which  the  efficiency  attained  varies 
widely.  The  administration  of  the  police  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult,  if  not  the  most  difficult  executive  function  which 
city  officials  are  called  upon  to  perform. 

The  principal  defects  in  the  American  police  system  arise 
from  the  fact  that  the  force  is  recruited  from  an  untrained 
class  of  men  and  the  chief  police  officials  are  not  sufficiently 
experienced.     This  springs  largely  from  political  causes,  and 


ADMINISTRATIVE  FUNCTIONS  209 

the  efficiency  of  the  police  will  only  be  obtained  when 
political  considerations  are  relegated  to  the  background  and 
the  personnel  of  the  force  improved. 

In  Germany,  for  example,  practically  all  policemen  were 
at  one  time  non-commissioned  officers  in  the  army,  and  very 
seldom  is  a  recruit  accepted  who  did  not  rise  at  least  the 
first  step  out  of  the  ranks.  The  body  of  men  is  thus  one 
used  to  disciphne  and  organization.  The  higher  police 
officials  must  have  been  officers  in  the  army,  and  as  they 
make  a  life  business  of  civic  administration,  they  prepare 
themselves  in  a  general  way  during  their  educational  careers 
to  become  administrators,  either  as  mayor,  paid  city  father, 
police  commissioner,  postmaster  or  in  other  like  capacity. 
As  such,  when  they  have  made  a  reputation  in  one  city,  in 
whatever  capacity,  they  may  be  called  to  other  and  more 
important  cities,  building  up  reputations  for  themselves  and 
moving  from  place  to  place  as  do  high  executive  railway 
officials  in  the  United  States. 

With  organizations  of  this  character  free  from  political 
influence,  municipal  regulation  has  teeth  in  it,  and  means 
all  that  it  stands  for.  It  is  one  of  the  fundamental  causes  of 
German  civic  superiority. 

The  proper  maintenance  of  order  is  an  administrative 
function  but  little  understood  by  the  American  police  in 
general.  They  do  not  appear  ever  to  have  been  instructed 
what  real  order  on  the  streets  means.  Streets  are  for  the 
purpose  of  enabling  the  public  to  get  from  place  to  place 
in  safety  and  with  convenience  and  despatch,  and  not  for  the 
various  other  purposes  to  which  they  are  put. 

Among  the  things  which  should  be  prohibited  are  the 
assemblying  of  groups  of  loafers  and  mashers  on  corners, 
spitting  and  throwing  refuse  on  the  sidewalks  and  making 
remarks  about  passers-by;  the  noisy  playing  of  boys  on  the 
streets,  shouting  and  loud  singing  on  streets,  roofs  and  build- 
ings, and  the  playing  of  bands  and  pianos  after  certain  hours; 
the  shouting  and  singing  of  roysterers  and  college  boys  in  the 
early  morning  hours;  rowdyism  in  the  streets  and  on  cars; 
the  calling  of  hucksters  and  others;  the  assemblying  on  side- 


210  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

walks  and  streets  of  crowds  attracted  by  window  displays  or 
baseball  or  bulletin  boards;  the  congregation  of  beggars  or 
others  soliciting  contributions,  including  bands  of  instru- 
mentalists; and  the  parading  and  gathering  on  the  streets 
and  sidewalks  of  bands  of  music  and  exhorters,  both  black 
and  white,  including  those  belonging  to  organizations  or 
issuing  from  neighboring  buildings  and  whose  music  and 
haranguing  are  likely  to  be  highly  distasteful  to  others  on 
the  streets  or  in  the  adjoining  residences. 

Other  notable  nuisances  which  should  be  prohibited  are 
noisy  vehicles,  particularly  automobiles  with  shrieking  horns 
and  smoking  engines;  flat-wheeled  trolley  cars;  blasting 
during  the  erection  of  buildings  and  the  operation  of  donkey 
engines  except  during  certain  hours. 

Nuisances  of  this  character  are  readily  prevented  when 
the  poUce  are  instructed  on  the  subject  and  are  required 
to  carry  out  their  instructions. 

It  is  certainly  not  the  part  of  wisdom  to  construct  a 
beautiful  city  and  then  have  its  advantages  impaired  by 
the  improper  use  of  the  streets.  The  streets  belong  to  the 
public  as  such,  and  not  to  individuals  with  time  to  kill  and 
axes  to  grind,  and  such  usage  should  be  promptly  stopped. 

Police  administration  buildings  and  municipal  courts 
should  always  be  of  an  imposing  monumental  character, 
and  they  may  properly  form  the  nucleus  of  civic  centers. 
As  objectives  at  focal  points,  they  are  highly  effective.  On 
account  of  the  psychological  effect  produced  and  for  the 
purpose  of  civic  embellishment,  no  expense  should  be  spared 
to  give  them  every  possible  degree  of  importance  and 
interest. 

In  the  fire  department  service,  American  cities  are 
placed  at  a  somewhat  better  advantage  than  in  the  police 
service,  since  politics  enters  much  less  importantly  into  the 
question.  The  firemen  themselves  are  brave  and  capable 
and  produce  the  best  possible  results  with  the  more  or  less 
antiquated  equipment  placed  at  their  command. 

It  is  in  this  department,  and  in  the  administration  of  the 
service,  that  American  fire  departments  are  inefficient. 


ADMINISTRATIVE  FUNCTIONS  211 

Abroad,  the  heads  of  departments  are  either  trained 
engineers  or  administrators,  and  if  not  engineers,  they  are 
assisted  by  advisory  engineers.  The  highest  degree  of 
technical  training  is  thus  brought  to  the  service  of  the  de- 
partments, for  such  men  make  the  subject  a  hfe  study. 

The  American  pubhc,  reading  only  the  stories  of  heroism 
of  the  individual  firemen,  is  not  aware  of  the  true  conditions 
existing  in  the  departments,  and  how  behind  the  times  the 
equipment  and  appliances  are.  Even  when  our  reforms  do 
come,  they  come  in  a  most  belated  fashion.  When  we  are 
beginning  to  adopt  automobile  fire  engines,  as  at  present, 
such  engines  are  being  discarded  abroad,  in  favor  of  electric 
engines. 

The  United  States  Consular  report  of  August  9,  1911, 
states: 

"The  city  of  Berlin  has  also  adopted  electricity  as  a 
motive  power  for  their  fire  department,  four  stations  being 
already  fully  equipped,  horses  and  gasoline  motors  being 
dispensed  with.  Among  the  many  advantages  of  the  system 
was  a  saving  of  over  half  the  cost  where  horses  had  been 
used,  also  a  wonderful  saving  of  time,  it  taking  but  12 
seconds  from  the  time  an  alarm  was  sounded  until  the  de- 
partment was  fully  under  way  on  the  street.  Safety  and 
simplicity  of  operation  were  also  fully  demonstrated." 

The  antiquated  methods  and  fire  apparatus  of  many 
cities  should  be  thoroughly  overhauled.  The  fancied  superi- 
ority of  the  departments  and  the  self-satisfaction  displayed 
should  be  promptly  exploded.  Often  the  system  of  fire 
alarms  depends  on  a  single  center  of  distribution  for  a  whole 
city  or  borough.  It  is  as  though  the  whole  telephone  system 
were  centered  at  a  given  point.  Surely  there  should  always 
be  a  distributing  system,  so  arranged  with  different  centers 
that  one  or  several  might  be  eliminated  and  still  leave  means 
of  communication  between  the  remaining  centers  effective. 

In  outlying  districts  particularly,  the  fire  alarm  wires 
are  exposed  and  subject  to  damage  and  interruption,  and 
they  are  so  frequently  interrupted  that  from  the  statistics 


212  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

kept  in  New  York,  for  example,  an  average  may  be  struck 
as  to  how  many  interruptions  may  be  expected  to  occur 
during  any  given  period. 

Not  only  are  fire  alarm  systems  defective  in  this  par- 
ticular but  the  methods  of  ringing  alarms  is  such  that  there 
is  much  time  wasted  in  starting  to  the  fire.  The  alarms 
should  appear  instantly,  as  annunciators  in  hotel  room 
signal  systems.  Often  the  horses  are  hitched  and  the  engines 
ready  to  go  and  waiting  for  the  alarm  to  be  completed 
before  being  able  to  tell  where  to  start  for. 

Horse-drawn  engines  are  scheduled  to  disappear  in  five 
years,  it  is  claimed.  This  will  be  just  about  fifteen  years 
behind  the  times  and  will  represent  a  loss  of  untold  millions 
in  property. 

Throughout  the  details  of  fire  fighting,  the  systems  are 
either  out  of  date  or  modern  devices  have  not  been  adopted. 
For  example,  the  fireman's  helmet,  which  is  connected  with 
an  oxygen  supply  and  a  water  supply,  is  not  in  use.  Clothed 
in  a  fireproof  suit,  and  with  water  pouring  over  him  from 
such  a  helmet  and  supplied  with  oxygen,  a  fireman  can 
literally  pass  through  flames,  while  smoke  is  no  obstacle 
whatever. 

A  few  of  these  in  use  in  fire  departments  would  be  the 
means  of  saving  a  great  number  of  lives  every  year,  of 
those  who,  overcome  by  smoke,  cannot  be  reached  by  fire- 
men as  at  present  equipped.  No  amount  of  heroism  can 
take  the  place  of  such  an  apparatus.  Doubtless  some  of 
them  may  be  expected  to  come  into  use  in  five  or  ten  years. 

The  enormous  damage  from  the  use  of  too  much  water  is 
another  serious  indictment  of  our  fire  fighting  methods.  Ex- 
cept in  cases  of  conflagrations  or  where  buildings  are  gutted, 
the  water  damage  is  unnecessarily  great,  and  often  is  greater 
than  the  damage  from  the  fire  itself.  Not  infrequently 
fatalities  are  due  to  drowning  in  flooded  basements,  rather 
than  to  suffocation. 

The  great  consumption  of  water  in  American  cities  as 
compared  with  foreign  cities  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
examples  taken  at  random: 


.•^^ 


ENTRANCES    TO    GREENWOOD    AND    CYPRESS    HILLS    CEMETERIES 
BROOKLYN,    N.    Y. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   FUNCTIONS  213 

Pittsburg,  220  gallons  per  day  per  capita;    Buffalo,  310 
Philadelphia,    205;     Chicago,    225;     Salt    Lake    City,    310 
Paris,  65;    London,  39;    Amsterdam,  37;    Copenhagen,  27 
and  Berlin,  22.     Even  with  these  small  amounts,  the  foreign 
cities   have   their   streets   and    sidewalks   flushed    regularly. 
The  American  excess  is  due  to  the  inefficiency  of  the  city 
authorities. 

It  is  the  boast  of  American  fire  chiefs  that  they  manage 
to  flood  buildings  with  certain  enormous  quantities  of  water. 
This  is  a  boast  of  inefficiency.  Abroad  the  fire  chief  reports 
how  few  gallons  he  was  able  to  use  to  put  out  the  fire. 
There,  apparatus  is  used  which  throws  the  water  in  thin 
sheets  under  high  pressure,  and  extinguishes  the  fire  without 
flooding  the  lower  floors,  or  in  fact,  in  many  cases,  even  wet- 
ting them,  as  it  is  evident  that  a  small  volume  of  water 
under  high  pressure  will  put  out  a  flre  more  effectively  than 
a  mere  flooding  of  the  floor.  Smaller  hose  is  generally  used, 
which  makes  it  more  available,  while  every  modern  device 
for  fire  fighting  is  also  employed. 

One  device  which  might  be  adopted  with  great  benefit 
in  many  American  cities  is  the  endless  bag  fire  escape,  reach- 
ing from  a  window  to  the  street,  the  lower  end  being  held 
some  distance  away  from  the  building.  Thus  a  person 
sliding  down  inside  the  bag,  shoots  out  at  the  bottom  in 
a  horizontal  direction,  instead  of  dropping  vertically  as 
down  a  rope. 

The  reason  for  not  adopting  the  small  hose  high  pres- 
sure system  here  is  that  it  has  been  "tried"  and  found 
impracticable.  Perhaps  the  fact  that  it  was  not  practicable 
was  due  to  the  fact  that  there  were  no  "practical"  men 
behind  the  companies  seeking  to  introduce  the  system,  since 
the  same  objection  has  been  urged  against  automobile  fire 
engines,  which  are  only  now  beginning  to  come  into  use, 
though  they  have  been  used  abroad  for  ten  years,  and  are 
now  being  discontinued  in  favor  of  the  electric  engine.  It 
is  alleged  that  they  have  not  proved  as  reliable  as  the  horse, 
yet  as  operated  abroad,  they  have  proved  more  reliable, 
speedy  and  efficient. 


214  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

The  great  extent  of  the  fire  losses  throughout  the  coun- 
try is  rarely  understood  by  the  public.  Yet  in  the  failure 
to  take  ordinary  precautions  against  fire,  and  in  carelessness 
and  faulty  construction,  losses  amounting  to  three-quarters 
of  a  million  dollars  a  day  are  incurred  throughout  the 
country. 

The  excessive  and  wasteful  use  of  wood  in  buildings  is 
largely  responsible  for  fires,  and  wood  is  used  because  of 
its  apparent  cheapness.  Ultimately  wood  is  a  high-priced 
building  material,  since  its  true  value,  in  the  first  place,  is 
much  higher  than  the  selling  price,  and  its  durability  is  so 
much  less  than  other  materials.  The  failure  to  renew  forests 
and  the  sacrificial  price  at  which  wood  is  sold,  representing 
only  the  cost  of  getting  it  to  market  and  not  the  cost  of 
reproducing  the  forest  crop,  has  resulted  in  the  erection  of 
a  large  number  of  buildings  of  an  inflammable  and  quickly 
deteriorating  nature.  If  wood  were  selling  at  its  true  value 
and  proper  building  laws  were  in  force,  both  of  which  would 
be  the  case  under  efficient  administrations,  the  forests  would 
be  conserved  and  the  great  loss  of  fire  largely  prevented  and 
a  double  result  of  inefficiency  cured. 

Fire  losses  abroad  averaged,  per  capita  for  six  principal 
cities  for  a  period  of  five  years,  33  cents  per  year,  as  com- 
pared with  losses  of  $3.02  per  capita  in  the  United  States. 
It  will,  therefore,  be  seen  that  American  cities  should  adopt 
the  most  urgent  measures  and  install  every  possible  facility 
for  fire  fighting  and  prevention. 

The  subject  is  most  intimately  connected  with  city 
planning,  as  with  the  erection  of  finer  buildings,  the  duty 
of  guarding  against  fire  becomes  greater.  Their  fireproof 
character,  however,  is  likely  to  minimize  fires,  so  that  if  the 
departments  are  provided  with  suitable  equipment,  the  num- 
ber of  firemen  will  not  have  to  be  increased,  and  may  even 
be  reduced  without  relaxing  the  degree  of  vigilance  which 
should  be  exercised. 

The  yearly  losses  according  to  the  records  kept  by  the 
New  York  Journal  of  Commerce  for  the  United  States  have 
been  in  the  last  sixteen  years  as  follows: 


ADMINISTRATIVE  FUNCTIONS  215 

1912 $225,320,900  1904 $252,554,050 

1911 234,337,250  1903 156,195,700 

1910 234,470,600  1902 149,260,850 

1909 203,649,200  1901 164,347,450 

1908 238,562,250  1900 163,362,250 

1907 215,671,250  1899 136,773,200 

1906 459,710,000  1898 119,650,500 

1905 175,193,800  1897 110,319,650 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  losses  though  varying  greatly 
from  year  to  year  have  more  than  doubled  during  this  period 
of  time,  a  condition  of  the  most  disquieting  nature. 

The  question  of  fire  alarm  and  police  alarm  signal  sys- 
tems was  considered  in  the  earlier  chapter,  "Streets  up-to- 
Date." 

To  what  extent  municipal  regulation  amounts  to  in 
German  cities  may  be  seen  from  the  following  as  reported 
in  Municipal  Journal  of  January  2,  1913: 

"Police  regulations  which  are  to  be  put  into  effect  in 
Berlin,  April,  1913,  will  bar  whistling  and  cane  swinging  and 
prohibit  persons  walking  more  than  three  abreast  on  the 
streets.  Copies  of  the  regulations  include  these  and  other 
usual  restrictions  as  follows:  Persons  may  not  walk  more 
than  three  abreast  or  stop  or  congregate  for  any  extended 
period  of  time.  Persons  with  umbrellas  or  walking  sticks 
must  not  carry  or  swing  them  in  any  manner  likely  to 
imperil  the  safety  of  passers-by.  No  windows  or  doors  of 
houses,  flats,  shops  or  restaurants  in  which  music  is  being 
played  may  be  kept  open.  No  whistling,  singing,  shrieking, 
shouting  or  loud  talking  of  any  kind  likely  to  endanger  the 
quiet  of  the  streets  is  to  be  permitted.  Teamsters  in  charge 
of  wagons,  trams  or  trucks  loaded  with  resounding  metal 
of  any  kind  are  forbidden  to  drive  in  a  manner  calculated 
to  cause  nerve-shattering  noises.  No  paper,  remains  of 
fruit,  cigars  or  cigarettes  may  be  thrown  into  the  streets. 
The  dragging  of  clothes  of  any  kind  —  women's  dresses  or 
anything  else  capable  of  producing  dust  —  is  prohibited." 

Numerous  other  novel  features  of  importance  in  use 
abroad  might  be  mentioned,  but  the  subject  is  so  extended 


216  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

as  to  be  beyond  the  limits  of  the  present  volume,  if  indeed 
too  much  space,  comparatively,  has  not  already  been  devoted 
to  it.  Anything,  however,  which  can  be  said  to  bring  about 
European  conditions,  in  which  the  losses  per  capita  are  only 
one-tenth  of  our  own,  is  certainly  not  superfluous.  If  we 
had  nine-tenths  of  our  fire  loss  to  spend  in  beautifying  cities 
they  could  be  indeed  made  to  bloom.  It  may  be  in  the 
saving  effected  in  fire  losses  abroad,  that  the  cities  have  the 
surplus  necessary  to  devote  to  the  subject,  for  certainly  in 
natural  resources  their  situation  is  not  as  good  as  ours  and 
why  they  should  have  funds  available  for  city  improvement 
when  we  have  not  is  not  very  obvious. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

COMMUNAL  INDUSTRIES 

Municipal  Markets;  Co-operative  Markets;  Municipal  Slaugh- 
ter Houses  and  Ice  Plants;  Public  Baths;  Stimulation  of 
the  Co-operation  of  Small  Manufacturers;  Central  Manu- 
facturing Plants  for  Co-operative  Industries 

The  civic  impulses  which  evidence  themselves  in  im- 
proved and  beautified  buildings  and  streets  are  not  satis- 
fied merely  with  aesthetic  progress,  but  are  also  shown  in 
plans  for  improving  in  a  direct  and  practical  way,  the 
living  conditions  of  the  whole  city. 

Among  such  improvements  are  various  forms  of  com- 
munal industry,  such  as  municipal  markets,  municipal 
slaughter  houses,  municipal  ice  plants,  municipal  baths  and 
municipal  manufacturing  facilities  for  small  industries. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  such  activities  is  the 
municipal  market.  Such  markets  are  best  conducted  by  a 
board  of  managers,  whose  duty  it  is  to  conduct  the  entire 
undertaking. 

The  principles  upon  which  such  institutions  are  con- 
ducted are  to  buy  at  the  most  favorable  times,  to  buy  in 
bulk  at  the  lowest  price,  and  to  sell  at  retail  at  the  lowest 
possible  prices,  without  showing  any  profit  above  overhead 
charges  and  running  expenses,  which  include  all  salaries, 
maintenance  and  insurance  of  market  and  goods  and  other 
expenses  incidental  to  the  enterprise. 

As  the  managers  buy  in  bulk  and  as  they  have  the  city's 
credit  and  ample  cash  capital  at  hand,  they  obtain  their 
goods  at  the  most  favorable  prices  and  discounts.  The 
public  is  also  assured  of  the  quality  of  the  goods  and  of 
perfectly  fair  treatment  from  the  managers  of  the  store,  who 
are,  in  effect,  to  be  considered  the  servants  of  the  public. 


218  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Such  municipal  markets  should  be  well  located,  with 
easy  access  from  all  parts  of  the  city,  and  if  this  is  not 
feasible,  a  number  of  branches  should  be  established.  This 
enables  a  whole  city  to  be  supplied  with  produce  purchased 
in  a  single  bulk. 

There  should  be  in  such  markets  different  departments, 
as  for  meat,  fish,  vegetables,  fruits,  groceries,  dairy  products, 
etc.  Such  a  market  should  occupy  a  block  or  so  of  space, 
with  an  interior  court  into  which  should  run  a  railroad 
siding,  as  well  as  a  wagon  way  for  delivery  wagons.  All 
loading  and  unloading  should  be  done  in  the  court  and  not 
on  the  sidewalks. 

When  enterprises  of  this  kind  are  not  undertaken  by 
municipalities,  every  encouragement  should  be  given  to  the 
organization  of  consumers'  unions,  or  large  associations  of 
private  consumers.  Many  such  associations  exist  abroad. 
In  Germany  alone,  there  is  a  central  consumers'  union, 
with  over  2,000  branches.  Very  large  associations  of  prac- 
tically the  same  character  exist  in  England. 

The  local  members  of  a  consumers'  union  pay  annual 
dues  of  about  five  dollars.  The  members  at  their  annual 
meeting  elect  directors  and  officers  to  carry  on  the  work. 
The  officers  may  only  act  in  a  supervisory  capacity  over  paid 
employees,  or  they  may  act  as  managers,  making  it  their 
whole  business  and  receiving  salaries  for  the  work.  The 
members  also  hold  monthly  meetings,  and  discuss  the  work 
of  the  officers  of  the  union,  market  prices,  methods  and 
complaints. 

The  central  body  of  the  unions  issues  a  weekly  bulletin, 
or  newspaper,  which  is  a  quite  important  phase  of  the 
movement.  It  gives  the  market  prices,  general  news  of 
interest  to  members,  discussions  and  reports  of  the  work  of 
the  various  local  unions,  comparing  their  methods  and  show- 
ing how  improvements  may  be  made.  Numerous  cooking 
receipts  are  given,  of  a  timely  nature,  showing  how  to 
utilize  the  foods  in  season  at  such  times  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. It  also  gives  information  as  to  the  condition  of  crops 
and  indicates  which   foods   are   likely  to   be  plentiful   and 


COMMERCIAL   INDUSTRIES  219 

which  scarce  later  in  the  season.  It  tells  the  proper  time 
for  placing  orders  for  foods  and  supplies  so  that  the  con- 
sumer may  order  at  the  most  favorable  moment.  Not  only 
the  current  prices  are  given,  but  also  the  probable  prices 
at  later  periods  of  the  year,  based  on  the  supplies  in  sight 
and  the  natural  increase  and  decrease.  This  enables  the 
consumer  to  determine  whether  to  lay  in  supplies  or  wait 
until  conditions  change.  It  acts  as  an  incentive  to  careful 
management  and  keeps  the  consumer  constantly  informed 
on  subjects  that  he  would  ordinarily  fail  to  give  proper 
attention  to. 

The  placing  of  orders  by  members  at  the  proper  time 
facilitates  the  work  of  the  unions,  since  it  enables  them  to 
gauge  the  probable  demand  of  their  members  and  to  place 
orders  for  the  required  amounts,  thus  saving  any  risk  of  an 
over  or  an  under  supply. 

The  unions,  knowing  what  the  requirements  of  their 
members  will  be,  are  able  to  place  orders  at  any  time  for 
certain  amounts  of  various  commodities,  to  be  delivered  later 
in  stated  quantities  at  stated  intervals  and  agreed  prices. 
Thus  the  consumer  knows  in  advance  what  he  will  have  to 
pay  and  when  he  will  have  to  pay  it. 

A  characteristic  consumers'  union  store  often  consists 
of  a  large  one-story  building  of  the  character  of  a  market 
house,  with  a  large  open  space  in  the  center.  Around  the 
sides  are  arranged  various  counters,  devoted  each  to  a  sepa- 
rate class  of  commodities,  a  counter  for  meats,  one  for  rice, 
flour,  etc.,  another  for  fruits,  another  for  vegetables,  another 
for  wines  and  liquors  and  others  for  clothing  and  haber- 
dashery, as  the  consumers'  unions  also  include  wearing 
apparel  as  well  as  foods  and  household  commodities  in  the 
articles  dealt  in.  Even  bicycles  and  hardware,  dishes,  cut- 
lery and  kitchen  utensils  are  included. 

The  consumers'  unions  are  particularly  popular  with 
the  working  classes,  though  by  no  means  confined  to  them. 
Since  to  become  a  member  only  involves  the  payment  of  the 
initiation  fee,  which  is  small,  most  of  the  families  living 
in  the  neighborhood  where  there  is  a  consumers'  union  store 


220  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

will  become  members  of  it.  As  there  are  many  branches, 
a  move  only  means  the  transfer  from  one  branch  to  another 
of  the  same  general  union,  without  paying  a  new  initiation 
fee. 

It  is  customary,  early  in  December,  for  the  consumers' 
unions  to  declare  a  rebate  or  dividend  out  of  the  profits  of 
the  year,  and  this  is  the  measure  of  the  efTiciency  of  the 
organization.  It  is  given  at  that  time  in  order  that  the 
members  may  have  money  to  utilize  for  Christmas  pur- 
chases. The  distribution  is  in  accordance  with  the  volume 
of  purchases  of  the  individual  members.  Track  is  kept  of 
this  in  the  method  of  making  purchases,  and  each  member 
is  provided  with  a  small  book  which  is  taken  to  the  store 
whenever  a  purchase  is  made.  The  salesman  marks  the 
amount  of  the  purchase  in  the  book  and  this  forms  the 
record  on  which,  at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  amount  of 
the  customer's  rebate  is  figured.  The  larger  his  purchases, 
the  larger  will  be  the  amount  of  his  rebate,  although  the 
rate  of  it  will  be  the  same  as  the  rate  of  a  smaller  consumer. 

During  the  year,  should  the  consumer  move  to  another 
part  of  the  country,  the  same  purchasing  book  may  still 
be  used.  Members  are  also  privileged,  when  there  are 
different  stores  in  the  same  city,  to  purchase  at  will  from 
any  of  them  with  the  same  book.  As  the  clientele  of  each 
store  varies  with  its  location,  some  having  goods  of  a  higher 
quality  than  others,  considerable  advantage  may  be  taken 
of  these  differences. 

As  the  local  unions  work  in  conjunction  with  the  credit 
unions,  the  consumers  may  in  this  way  obtain  a  certain 
amount  of  credit. 

Directly  related  to  the  question  of  municipal  markets 
is  that  of  municipal  slaughter  houses.  Such  plants  should 
be  provided  by  every  city,  whatever  its  size,  and  dressed 
meat  should  only  in  exceptional  instances  be  drawn  from 
outside  sources. 

Such  a  system  would  insure  cheaper  and  better  meats, 
while  the  concentration  of  the  meat  business  of  the  country 
in  a  single  city,  with  domination  of  the  situation  by  a  trust 


CHILDRK.N  S    SCHOOL    GAKDKXS,    LOtlK    I1A\  liX,    PA. 


CHILDREN  S    SIDE    OF    THE    FAIRGROUND    SWIMMING    POOL,     ST.    LOUIS 


-!    , 

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Z  =5 


cc  - 


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t-  ^- 


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Q  : 

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COMMUNAL  INDUSTRIES  221 

shipping  great  quantities  of  meat  to  foreign  countries,  caus- 
ing an  artificial  shortage  and  consequently  higher  prices  to 
home  consumers,  would  be  prevented. 

Under  such  an  arrangement  meat  would  be  fresher  when 
purchased  and  of  better  quality,  since  a  more  complete  and 
comprehensive  system  of  inspection  could  be  carried  out. 

In  the  municipal  slaughter  houses  of  Germany,  the 
butchers  of  a  city  purchase  their  animals  on  the  hoof,  and 
they  themselves  use  the  facilities  of  the  plant  for  the  opera- 
tions of  slaughtering,  after  which  the  dressed  meat  is  in- 
spected and  stamped  with  the  date.  Inspectors  later  visit 
the  shops  and  require  such  meat  to  be  disposed  of  within 
a  leasonable  time.  This  insures  freshness  of  the  customers' 
supply. 

Objection  may  be  made  to  the  presence  of  slaughter 
houses  in  cities,  owing  to  possible  nuisance,  but  modern  engi- 
neering has  made  the  process  of  slaughtering  such  that  no  excep- 
tion can  be  taken  to  the  presence  of  such  establishments. 

Connected  with  the  question  of  municipal  slaughter 
houses  is  that  of  municipal  ice  plants.  The  problem  is  one 
that  is  of  especial  interest  in  the  United  States  where  such 
a  liberal  use  is  made  of  ice.  By  very  small  additions,  the 
machinery  of  the  slaughter  house  may  be  made  to  serve  for 
the  manufacture  of  ice,  a  certain  quantity  of  which  is 
needed  for  the  use  of  the  slaughter  house. 

A  still  more  economical  arrangement  is  that  in  which 
the  municipal  electric  plant,  ice  plant  and  slaughter  house 
are^  operated  in  conjunction. 

Exhaust  steam  from  the  steam  engine  may  be  utilized 
for  the  manufacture  of  ice  in  summer  and  for  central  heating 
purposes  in  winter.  The  combined  plants  will  thus  supply 
light,  heat  and  power  for  the  city,  ice  and  slaughtering  facili- 
ties, and  in  addition  the  pumping  of  city  water,  in  a  most 
economical  manner,  since  the  full  capacity  of  the  machinery 
can  be  utilized  during  the  whole  of  the  twenty-four  hours  of 
the  day,  being  used  for  the  various  purposes  at  different 
hours. 

While  many  municipalities  have  provided  public  baths. 


222  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

they  have  seldom  been  provided  in  sufficient  number  or  with 
proper  equipment. 

Such  baths  should  be  on  a  large  scale  and  be  what  may 
be  termed  aquatic  gymnasiums.  There  should  be  a  large 
swimming  pool  some  100  feet  or  more  in  length  and  40  to 
50  feet  wide,  varying  from  3  to  15  feet  in  depth  at  different 
parts,  with  spring  boards  for  diving  and  artificial  waves. 

Steam  rooms,  sweating  rooms  and  shower  baths  should 
be  provided,  with  both  hot  and  cold  water.  The  showers 
should  be  arranged  to  jet  either  from  above,  from  the  wall 
at  the  side  or  from  the  floor  upwards,  the  latter  form 
being  particularly  useful,  as  it  saves  the  annoyance  of  wetting 
the  hair.  Such  showers  are  operated  by  the  user,  who 
regulates  the  force,  volume  and  temperature  of  the  water. 

The  gymnasium  should  include  the  various  forms  of 
gymnastic  apparatus,  and  it  is  desirable  also  to  have  a 
running  track,  which  may  be  arranged  around  the  dressing 
rooms  or  around  the  sides  of  the  swimming  pool. 

In  construction  the  bath  should  be  throughout  of  tile  and 
of  such  other  materials  as  will  betray  the  presence  of  dirt,  in 
order  that  the  most  scrupulous  cleanliness  may  be  observed. 

A  heating  plant  must  be  provided  for  keeping  the  water 
heated  to  the  proper  temperature,  and  also  for  keeping 
the  rooms  at  a  uniform  temperature.  Arrangements  should 
be  such  that  the  pool  may  be  drained  and  refilled  in  a  short 
time.  Such  baths  should  be  in  charge  of  a  skilled  swimming 
master,  for  the  instruction  of  those  who  wish  to  learn  to 
swim.  Attendants  should  be  at  hand  to  massage  those  who 
desire  such  service. 

It  is  advisable  to  supply  the  baths  with  as  many  fea- 
tures as  possible,  in  order  that  they  may  be  utilized  to  the 
fullest  extent.  The  price  of  admission  should  be  low,  just 
sufficient  to  cover  the  cost  of  operation,  provided  it  is  not 
free,  while  fees  for  special  service,  as  for  swimming  lessons 
and  massage,  should  be  turned  into  the  general  fund. 

Separate  municipal  baths  should  be  provided  for  women, 
but  if  this  is  not  feasible,  certain  days  of  the  week  should 
be  set  apart  for  their  exclusive  use. 


COMMUNAL   INDUSTRIES  223 

The  City  of  New  York  maintains  and  operates  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  President  of  the  Borough  of  Manhattan, 
twelve  Free  Public  Interior  Baths  and  eleven  Free  Floating 
Baths. 

For  the  use  of  these  institutions,  there  is  no  charge 
whatever,  the  only  requisite  being  respectable  and  orderly 
conduct  on  the  part  of  the  patrons,  compliance  with  the  rules, 
and  that  the  bathers  furnish  their  own  towels  and  soap. 
This  has  been  the  policy  almost  from  the  opening  of  the 
first  public  bath,  although  at  the  opening  of  the  bath  in 
Rivington  Street,  the  city  did  undertake  to  furnish  towels 
and  soap  at  a  nominal  charge  to  the  bathers.  However,  it 
was  soon  found  that  the  loss  of  towels  was  very  great;  the 
shower  rooms  were  plastered  with  waste  soap,  the  floors 
shppery  and  the  drains  choked.  Besides  a  certain  percentage 
of  danger  from  contagion  existed  unless  the  towels  were  laun- 
dered under  strict  surveillance.  All  these  evils  were  at  once 
remedied  by  patrons  furnishing  their  own  requisites  and  the 
scheme  of  supplying  towels  and  soap  was  discontinued. 

In  order  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  congested  portions 
of  the  East  Side,  it  was  found  necessary  to  locate  the  baths 
where  they  would  be  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  masses 
of  people,  and  especially  to  those  who  could  not  afford  the 
luxury  of  a  bath  at  home.  Accordingly,  one  may  find  them 
scattered  along  the  thickly  populated  sections  of  the  East 
Side  from  the  corner  of  Cherry  and  Olive  streets  to  East 
One  Hundred  and  Ninth  street.  These  baths,  along  with 
the  floating  baths  stationed  at  intervals  along  the  water 
front,  bathe  upwards  of  five  millions  of  people  annually, 
and  yet  their  patronage  does  not  begin  to  tax  their  capacity. 

During  the  summer  months,  from  the  first  of  April 
until  the  first  of  November,  the  interior  baths  are  open 
daily  to  the  public  from  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  until 
10  o'clock  at  night.  On  Sundays  during  the  summer 
months,  they  are  open  from  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  until 
1  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 

During  the  winter  months,  the  baths  are  open  from  7 
o'clock  in  the  morning  until  9  o'clock  at  night.     On  Sun- 


224  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

days  they  are  open  from  7  o'clock  in  the  morning  until 
2  clock  in  the  afternoon. 

At  the  East  Twenty-Third  Street  Bath,  the  pool  is 
66  feet  long  and  25  feet  wide.  At  the  shallow  end  it  is  3 
feet  deep  and  slopes  gradually  toward  the  deep  end  where 
the  depth  is  7  feet.  When  full,  this  pool  holds  about  70,000 
gallons  of  water.  Adjoining  the  pool  are  shower  rooms, 
where  the  bather  may  prepare  for  the  plunge.  The  West 
Sixtieth  Street  pool  is  60  feet  long  and  35  feet  wide  and 
contains  about  85,000  gallons  of  water.  The  water  used 
in  these  pools  is  thoroughly  filtered  before  entering  the  tank 
and  is  changed  at  least  three  times  a  week.  It  is  fresh 
water  from  the  Croton  Reservoir  and  the  temperature  is 
regulated,  being  kept  at  between  70  and  75  degrees. 

The  United  States  Volunteer  Life  Saving  Corps  and  the 
Women's  National  Life  Saving  League  have  swimming  in- 
structors at  the  pool  during  certain  hours  to  teach  swim- 
ming. These  hours  vary  from  time  to  time.  Aside  from 
these  instructions,  an  attendant  who  is  a  competent  swimmer 
is  required  to  be  on  duty  constantly  at  the  pool,  with  in- 
structions to  pay  attention  to  all  swimmers.  It  is  planned, 
also,  to  have  regular  departmental  swimming  instructors 
stationed  at  the  baths  to  give  free  instructions  throughout 
the  day. 

During  the  year  1911,  there  were  5,400,567  free  baths 
given  by  the  city  of  New  York  in  both  floating  and  per- 
manent baths.  The  average  cost  per  bather  during  that 
year  was  a  little  over  4  cents.  During  the  summer  months 
of  1911,  the  bathing  at  the  Rivington  Street  Bath  often 
reached  as  high  as  3,000  in  one  day. 

During  the  month  of  December,  1911,  each  bather  used 
on  an  average  9.9  cubic  feet  of  water  and  required  the  con- 
sumption of  8.8  pounds  of  coal. 

The  floating  baths  are  all  built  about  on  the  same  plan, 
as  follows:  They  are  95  feet  long  and  60  feet  wide,  and  are 
floated  on  eight  pontoons,  placed  four  on  each  side  of  the 
bath.  In  the  center  there  is  a  large  well,  divided  into  two 
parts,  one  93  feet  long  and  34  feet  wide  for  adults,  and  one 


COMMUNAL   INDUSTRIES  225 

70  feet  long  and  8  feet  wide  for  children.  The  depth  of  the 
water  in  the  large  well  is  43^2  feet  and  in  the  small  one  2)^ 
feet.  There  are  68  dressing  rooms  opening  upon  a  small 
gangway  around  the  edge  of  the  well. 

The  floating  baths,  like  the  interior  baths,  are  free,  but 
of  course  are  used  only  during  the  summer.  They  are  open 
usually  from  5  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  9  o'clock  in  the 
evening  and  on  Sundays  until  noon. 

The  interior  bath  buildings  are  well-designed  buildings 
of  a  monumental  character,  and  four  of  them  have  gym- 
nasiums in  connection  with  the  bathing  facilities.  The  first, 
the  Rivington  Street  Bath,  was  opened  in  1901,  and  the  city 
is  contemplating  further  extensions  of  the  system. 

Cities  which  are  not  near  a  body  of  water  suitable  for 
bathing  purposes  may  well  follow  the  example  of  Remscheid, 
Germany,  which  established  an  artificial  strand  bath. 

Remsheid,  with  a  population  of  78,000,  is  situated  8 
miles  south  of  Barmen-Elberfeld,  directly  on  top  of  one  of 
the  highest  hills  of  the  "Bergische  Land"  (mountain  land), 
and  is  distant  from  lakes  or  rivers  of  sufllcient  size  to  offer 
natural  advantages  for  open-air  bathing,  and  it  was  decided 
to  build  a  "strand  bath"  in  the  valley  just  below  the  pump- 
ing station  of  the  reservoir,  where  advantage  could  be  taken 
of  the  reservoir  overflow.  Excavations  were  made  and  three 
basins  built  of  reinforced  concrete.  The  principal  basin,  for 
both  sexes,  has  an  area  of  32,292  square  feet  and  a  depth  of 
4  feet,  except  at  one  end,  where  a  part  reserved  for  expert 
swimmers  has  a  depth  of  10  feet.  At  either  end  of  the  main 
basin  is  a  basin  for  men  and  one  for  women,  each  5,382 
square  feet  in  area.  On  one  side  of  the  larger  basin  there 
is  a  space  arranged  for  spectators,  who  pay  a  small  admission 
fee;  on  the  other,  where  the  concrete  slopes  gradually  to 
the  center,  is  an  artificial  sand  beach,  fitted  with  gymnastic 
apparatus.  The  cost  of  building  was  $14,280.  The  bath 
was  opened  to  the  public  on  June  29,  1912. 

During  the  first  season  there  were  116,960  visitors,  and 
the  total  receipts  amounted  to  |6,963.09.  During  the  season 
of  1913  the  attendance  averaged  over  2,000  bathers  daily, 


226  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

not  only  from  Remsheid  but  from  the  surrounding  cities  of 
Lennep,  Solingen,  Ohiigs,  Elberfeld,  and  Barmen.  Three 
similar  baths  are  projected  in  Barmen  and  Elberfeld  which 
should  be  ready  for  use  in  the  spring  of  1914. 

One  of  the  greatest  problems  confronting  the  American 
public  to-day  is  that  of  keeping  the  small  manufacturer  from 
being  crushed  by  his  larger  rivals.  The  concentration  of 
capital  has  proceeded  to  such  an  extent  that  the  small 
manufacturer  is  being  eliminated  and  transformed  into  the 
employee  of  the  large  concern  or  driven  to  running  a  small 
repair  shop. 

The  result  is  that  manufacture  is  concentrated  at  certain 
centers  and  other  cities  are  left  with  little  impetus  to  growth. 
It  is  thus  the  duty  of  the  municipality  to  exercise  every 
effort  to  overcome  the  tendencies  of  consolidation.  This  can 
only  be  done  by  meeting  concentration  of  capital  by  masses 
of  capital  of  equal  strength,  and  by  adding  factors  which  will 
overcome  the  trusts  on  their  own  ground. 

The  following  plan  is  suggested  as  a  possible  or  partial 
solution  of  the  problem,  and  though  it  has  never  been  at- 
tempted in  practice,  and  may  be  of  only  theoretical  interest; 
in  certain  aspects  it  embodies  principles  which  should  prove 
readily  applicable  and  which  call  into  action  a  very  powerful 
factor,  the  initiative  of  workmen  and  small  employers,  in  a 
manner  which  should  serve  to  meet  the  competition  of 
trusts  effectively. 

The  proposed  plan  is  as  follows: 

The  municipality  should  erect  a  large  manufacturing 
plant,  and  rent  space  to  small  manufacturers  in  proportion 
to  their  needs.  It  should  also  equip  the  plant  with  all  the 
various  kinds  of  machinery  necessary  for  the  manufacture 
of  the  several  lines  of  products  proposed  to  be  turned  out  by 
the  participating  manufacturers. 

The  municipality,  through  a  board  of  managers  consisting 
of  city  officials,  representatives  of  local  banking  interests  and 
representatives  of  the  participating  manufacturers,  should 
conduct  the  plant. 

This  board  of  managers  should  arrange  for  all  the  pur- 


COMMUNAL   INDUSTRIES  227 

chases  of  materials  needed  by  the  manufacturers,  as  in  this 
way  the  credit  of  the  city  and  the  endorsement  of  the 
bankers  interested  would  give  the  enterprises  the  advantages 
of  the  most  favorable  credits  and  discounts. 

The  interests  of  the  bankers  would  lie  in  furnishing  the 
capital  for  the  undertaking,  through  their  purchase  of  the 
city's  bonds  issued  to  erect  and  equip  the  factory,  and  their 
loans  for  the  use  of  the  manufacturers.  The  availability  of 
an  ample  supply  of  working  capital  is  absolutely  essential  to 
the  success  of  such  an  undertaking,  since  the  small  manufac- 
turer requires  capital  to  invest  in  materials  and  for  wages 
and  other  expenses,  between  the  time  the  order  is  received 
and  the  time  the  purchaser  makes  the  final  payment,  often 
many  weeks  after  the  delivery  of  the  finished  product.  The 
furnishing,  thus,  of  an  ample  supply  of  working  capital  at 
reasonable  rates,  would  enable  the  manufacturers  to  get 
their  products  manufactured  without  the  delay  of  waiting  for 
customers'  payments  to  get  money  for  materials  and  labor. 
The  activity  of  the  manufacturers  would  thus  not  be  ham- 
pered by  financial  considerations  and  they  would  by  this 
method  be  on  an  equal  financial  footing  with  even  the  largest 
of  the  industrial  trusts. 

The  communal  manufacturers  would  each  rent  a  certain 
space  in  the  equipped  plant,  with  the  machinery  necessary 
for  the  manufacture  of  his  own  goods.  The  raw  materials 
needed  by  the  various  members  would,  as  has  been  noted, 
be  purchased  through  the  central  office,  thus  gaining  the 
advantage  for  each  member  of  the  wholesale  prices  com- 
manded by  the  bulk  purchases  of  all  the  members. 

The  association  would  also  assist  in  selling  the  products, 
and  would  maintain  its  own  credit  department  for  ascertain- 
ing the  reliability  of  customers.  A  central  bookkeeping  and 
correspondence  department  would  be  maintained,  saving  the 
individual  members  the  expenses  of  separate  office  organiza- 
tions. Shipments  of  goods  would  be  made  by  the  shipping 
departments  of  the  plant  and  a  system  of  local  delivery 
established.  The  individual  members  would  thus  be  saved 
the  expenses  of  a  separate  delivery  system. 


228  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

The  labor  supply  of  the  communal  plant  could  be  so 
arranged  as  to  be  shifted  from  member  to  member  as  occa- 
sion demanded,  thus  giving  the  workers  more  continuous 
employment. 

The  plant  would  supply  to  the  members  light,  heat  and 
power  at  cost  price,  having  its  own  generating  plant,  and 
thus  the  first  cost  and  depreciation  of  a  number  of  separate 
power  plants  would  be  saved. 

All  the  activities  of  the  association  would  be  carried  out 
for  the  benefit  of  the  members  so  that  no  profit  would  accrue 
to  the  association  as  such.  Thus  all  the  services  performed 
for  the  members  would  be  at  cost,  and  on  a  wholesale  basis, 
and  the  manufacturing  and  overhead  expenses  would  be  as 
low  as  it  would  be  possible  for  them  to  be  made  under  any 
circumstances. 

Such  a  group  of  communal  manufacturers  could  with 
advantage  be  the  manufacturers  of  different  portions  of  a 
mechanism,  such  as  an  automobile.  Each  could  manufac- 
ture some  special  part,  as  engine,  body,  chassis,  wheels,  tires, 
magneto,  spark  plugs,  radiator,  lamps,  etc.,  the  whole  car 
being  assembled  and  sold  ])y  the  association.  The  surplus 
manufacture  of  parts  could  be  marketed  elsewhere. 

As  the  association  would  maintain  a  system  of  inspection 
and  would  have  a  trade-mark  of  its  own  in  addition  to  the 
individual  trade-mark  of  the  manufacturers,  the  products  of 
the  association  would  establish  a  reputation  for  themselves 
and  be  able  to  meet  any  competition  on  the  open  market. 
They  would,  in  fact,  have  a  large  sentimental  attraction,  for 
the  public  prefers  if  possible  to  patronize  the  independent 
manufacturer  where  the  trust  is  met  on  equal  terms. 

A  communal  industry  of  such  a  character  would  be  as  if 
a  large  industrial  plant  were  conducted  along  the  lines  of  a 
department  store,  with  each  department  belonging  to  the 
individual  manager.  It  can  be  readily  seen  if  such  were 
the  case  in  an  industrial  plant,  that  there  would  be  a  great 
improvement  in  the  efficiency  of  the  plant,  as  the  individual 
managers  would  exert  a  far  different  degree  of  authority  and 
energy  than  factory  foremen. 


VIEW    SHOWING    PART    OF    THE    MINICIPAL    ABATTOIR    AND    SLAUGHTER- 
HOUSE   AT    DRESDEN 
The  most  complete  system  of  its  kind:   a  "spotless  town"  covering  ninety  acres  and 
includes  60  buildings,  costing  $4,260,000 


BUSH    TERMINAL,    BROOKLYN,    N.    Y. 
Docks  and  manufacturing  buildings.     A  step  lowani  canimunal  induslrij 


COMMUNAL  INDUSTRIES  229 

Thus  a  communal  industry  in  which  the  large  trusts  are 
met  on  an  equal  footing  as  to  capital,  cost  of  material,  labor 
and  selling,  should  not  only  not  have  any  difficulty  in 
meeting  the  competition  of  the  trusts,  but  should  be  able  to 
overcome  them,  owing  to  the  possession  of  the  great  ad- 
vantages of  individual  initiative.  The  employee  of  the  large 
plant  can  never  hope  to  be  anything  more  than  an  employee, 
at  most  becoming  a  foreman  or  superintendent.  There  is 
thus,  throughout  the  personnel,  a  lack  of  interest,  if  not 
antagonism  to  the  work  of  the  establishment.  This  is  the 
result  of  the  deprivation  of  the  hope  of  advancement.  In 
the  communal  plant,  however,  where  the  step  from  employee 
to  employer  is  so  short,  through  the  supplying  of  capital  and 
machinery  by  the  association,  every  workman  would  have 
the  opportunity  of  rising  to  a  place  of  independence  and, 
once  established,  to  that  of  competence.  The  result  would 
be  that  a  spirit  of  energy  and  goodwill  would  pervade  the 
establishment  which  would  increase  the  quality  and  volume 
of  its  output  and  make  it  a  factor  in  the  industrial  life  of 
the  city,  not  to  be  overcome.  Numerous  other  advantages 
would  accrue  under  such  a  system  which  cannot  be  detailed 
here,  but  enough  has  been  said  to  indicate  the  great  possi- 
bilities of  the  plan. 

In  the  Bush  Terminal  System  in  New  York  are  to  be 
found,  to  a  limited  extent,  certain  of  the  features  of  such  a 
system,  that  is  buildings  adapted  to  manufacture  and  com- 
mercial purposes  in  which  light,  heat  and  power  are  supplied, 
and  also  facilities  for  shipment  without  the  necessity  of 
trucking.  This  system  has  proved  such  a  great  success  that 
it  is  proposed  to  have  the  city  buy  it  and  extend  it  much 
more  widely. 

The  co-operation  of  the  city  and  of  its  commercial  bodies 
and  banking  interests  in  the  establishment  of  such  communal 
industries  as  have  been  discussed,  cannot  fail  to  promote  the 
welfare  and  prosperity  of  the  city,  and  assist  it  in  retaining 
and  building  up  its  industries  in  competition  with  those  of 
larger  cities. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
CITY  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MAINTENANCE 

(A)  Street  Construction  (F)  Water  Supply 

(B)  Sewage  Disposal  (G)  Gas  Supply 

(C)  Care  of  Streets  (H)  Electricity  Supply 

(D)  Street  Cleaning  (I)    Electric  Street  Rail- 

(E)  Refuse  Disposal  ways 

(A)   Street  Construction 

Street  Paving;  Street  Repairing;  Municipal  Paving  Plants; 
Double  Decked  Streets;  Pipe  Galleries 

If  a  city  is  to  make  any  aesthetic  progress,  there  must  be 
as  a  foundation,  a  sound  structural  basis.  The  city  itself, 
aside  from  a  comparatively  few  public  buildings,  is  princi- 
pally occupied  with  the  building  of  streets,  of  which  it  must 
construct  and  maintain  a  large  mileage. 

This  work,  instead  of  being  a  matter  of  detail  as  it  is 
ordinarily  regarded,  is  one  of  the  first  importance,  affecting 
every  citizen  in  the  most  direct  and  immediate  manner. 

Without  streets  a  city  is  an  impossibility.  Imagine  the 
condition  if  Broadway  in  New  York  or  Pennsylvania  Avenue 
in  Washington  had  been  left  in  the  condition  of  country 
roads.  The  abutting  buildings  would  have  been  unin- 
habitable. The  proper  construction  of  streets  is  a  funda- 
mental and  basic  civic  activity,  and  one  to  which  the  greatest 
engineering  skill  and  experience  should  be  given. 

An  arterial  street  in  a  completed  condition  is  made  up  of 
numerous  and  important  elements,  including  the  paving, 
sidewalks,  sewer  system,  gas  and  water  mains,  conduits  for 
electric  light,  power,  telephone,  fire  and  police  alarm  wires, 


STREET    CONSTRUCTION  231 

pneumatic  tubes,  street  car  tracks,  and  possibly  elevated  or 
subway  structures  and  contributory  equipment. 

Of  the  many  forms  of  street  paving,  such  as  asphalt, 
stone  blocks,  wooden  blocks,  bricks,  bitulithic  and  cobble- 
stone and  macadam  surfacing,  there  is  none  which  is  suitable 
for  universal  use.  Numerous  considerations  enter  into  the 
question  of  proper  surfacing  of  every  street.  The  volume 
and  character  of  the  trafhc,  grade,  and  nature  of  the  abutting 
property  are  among  the  principal  items.  The  first  cost  of 
the  street  should  not  be  the  most  important  consideration, 
as  the  cost  of  street  maintenance  plays  a  much  more  im- 
portant role,  so  that  in  the  long  run  a  well-constructed 
roadway,  whatever  the  initial  expense,  will  prove  the  best 
investment  if  it  is  suited  to  the  traffic. 

The  prevalent  expensive,  yet  inferior  American  street 
paving  is  largely  the  result  of  political  causes,  such  as  the 
frequent  changes  of  administration,  the  fraudulent  letting  of 
contracts,  the  monopoly  of  street  construction  by  interested 
parties  and  the  jobbery  in  repairs. 

Where  civil  service  rules  are  in  force,  a  large  part  of  the 
engineering  staff  of  a  city  is  frequently  lacking  in  the  qual- 
ities necessary  to  secure  the  best  results,  for  though  capable 
of  passing  the  examinations,  they  have  not  the  personal 
initiative  and  progressiveness  required  of  those  who  hold 
similar  positions  in  private  companies. 

Much  money  is  wasted  in  experimental  work  by  incoming 
administrations,  and  before  the  incumbents  have  become 
experienced,  a  new  election  brings  in  a  new  staff,  who  are 
only  too  eager  to  blame  bad  street  construction  on  their 
predecessors  while  they  themselves  are  as  yet  only  beginning 
to  experiment.  The  process  is  constantly  repeated  with  the 
worst  possible  results  to  the  city,  and  will  so  continue  until 
competent  engineers  are  attached  permanently  to  the  city 
administration  in  a  direct  or  advisory  capacity. 

The  various  materials  used  for  street  surfacing  may  be 
broadly  divided  into  two  classes. 

The  first  class  are  those  which  are  prepared  in  the  form 
of  blocks  and  shipped  to  the  point  of  construction  and  the 


232  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

second  class  include  surfacing  prepared  and  laid  at  the  point 
of  construction.  Of  the  first  class  granite  blocks,  sand- 
stone blocks,  wooden  blocks,  vitrified  brick,  composition 
block  and  cobblestones  are  the  principal  forms,  while  in  the 
second  class  are  asphalt,  bitulithic,  concrete,  macadam  and 
similar  materials. 

Asphalt  as  a  street  surfacing  has  numerous  advantages 
though  at  the  same  time  certain  disadvantages.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  nearly  noiseless  of  street  materials  and  produces  a 
certain  aesthetic  effect,  its  smoothness  and  homogeneous 
appearance  giving  a  finish  and  an  urban  character  to  a  street 
which  is  not  surpassed  by  any  other  material. 

It  is  a  somewhat  expensive  street  material  and  repairs 
require  special  apparatus  and  experience.  On  grades,  its 
slipperiness  in  wet  weather  is  against  it  and  in  hot  weather 
it  becomes  somewhat  soft.  As  certain  of  its  components  are 
liable  to  evaporation,  it  rots  out  under  light  traffic  before 
it  wears  out.  In  small  cities,  owing  to  this  fact  and  to  the 
cost  of  repairs,  it  is  a  more  expensive  form  of  paving  than  in 
large  cities. 

In  cities  having  or  contemplating  a  large  mileage  in 
asphalt  streets,  the  erection  of  a  municipal  asphalt  plant  for 
both  the  laying  and  repairing  of  streets,  greatly  reduces  the 
cost  of  this  form  of  surfacing. 

New  York  City  is  now  erecting  a  municipal  asphalt 
plant  designed  by  the  writer,  which  has  a  capacity  of  3,000 
square  yards  of  2-inch  topping  per  eight-hour  day.  The 
plant  is  located  in  the  block  between  90th  and  91st  Streets, 
Avenue  A  and  the  East  River,  which  in  its  greatest  dimen- 
sions is  200  feet  by  540  feet. 

The  plant  proper  will  consist  of  three  15-ton  driers  so 
arranged  that  either  binder  stone  or  sand  may  pass  through 
all  three  or  part  of  them.  Under  ordinary  circumstances, 
two  driers  are  used  for  topping  and  one  for  binder. 

There  are  three  tar  melting  kettles  and  two  150  horse- 
power boilers.  Part  of  the  steam  will  be  used  for  melting 
the  tar  and  part  for  the  150  horse-power  steam  engine  which 
operates  the  machinery. 


STREET   CONSTRUCTION  233 

There  is  also  a  75  horse-power  engine  and  provision  is 
made  to  install  one  more  kettle,  one  more  drier  and  one  more 
boiler,  all  of  the  same  capacity  as  the  units  now  in  place. 

The  operation  of  the  entire  plant,  from  the  unloading  of 
the  barges  to  feeding  the  driers,  kettles,  etc.,  is  done  auto- 
matically, and  manual  labor  is  cut  down  to  the  minimum. 
Provision  is  also  made  for  the  installation  of  a  rejuvenating 
plant  with  apparatus  for  re-using  the  old  asphalt  which 
would  otherwise  be  wasted. 

When  completed  this  plant  will  be  one  of  the  largest  and 
best  equipped  plants  in  the  country. 

From  a  financial  standpoint,  one  of  the  great  savings  will 
be  due  to  the  promptness  with  which  repairs  can  be  made. 
Under  existing  conditions,  so  much  time  elapses  between  the 
report  of  a  break  in  the  pavement  and  the  repairs,  that  the 
damaged  area  increases  greatly.  It  is  a  self-evident  fact 
that  continuous  maintenance  will  be  much  more  economical 
than  intermittent  repairing. 

The  work  done  will  be  of  a  higher  quality,  since  by  using 
only  the  best  grades  of  materials,  the  city's  interest  will  be 
fully  protected. 

Another  important  gain  will  be  that  of  properly  adjust- 
ing the  supply  of  work  to  the  capacity  of  the  plant,  so  that 
operation  will  be  practically  continuous. 

Much  more  advantageous  contracts  may  be  made,  also 
with  private  companies,  when  they  are  obliged  to  meet  the 
competition  of  a  municipal  plant. 

The  advantages,  indeed,  of  municipal  owned  asphalt 
plants  are  so  great  that  they  will  undoubtedly  be  adopted  by 
most  of  the  larger  cities  within  a  short  time. 

A  form  of  surfacing  known  as  bitulithic,  claimed  to  have 
advantages  over  asphalt,  is  being  used  to  some  extent,  but 
it  has  not  yet  been  in  use  long  enough  to  determine  its 
status. 

Granite  block  paving  is  suited  only  to  the  heaviest 
traffic,  being  extremely  noisy  and  wearing  on  vehicles.  It 
is  adapted  for  heavy  trucking  as  it  gives  horses  a  good  foot- 
hold, but  it  is  out  of  place  where  lighter  vehicles  are  called 


234  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

upon  to  make  any  speed.  For  use  around  docks,  freight 
terminals  and  in  wareiiouses  districts,  it  is  very  serviceable. 

On  the  continent,  stone  block  streets  are  sometimes  laid 
with  wooden  strips  or  laths  one-quarter  inch  thick,  between 
rows  of  the  blocks,  which  are  larger  than  those  usually 
employed  in  the  United  States.  The  blocks  are  laid  on  con- 
crete foundations,  with,  in  some  cases,  a  thin  layer  of  sand 
as  a  cushion  between  the  blocks  and  the  concrete. 

A  street  found  in  some  cities  abroad  is  called  the  mosaic. 
The  stones  are  cut  to  a  uniform  depth,  but  are  of  different 
shapes  and  are  laid  radially  on  a  sand  cushion,  with  different 
kinds  of  fillers.  The  results  are  somewhat  ornamental  and 
prove  very  satisfactory. 

Brick  is  a  comparatively  low-priced  paving  in  first  cost, 
but  it  is  noisy,  not  easily  cleaned  and  wears  out  quickly 
under  heavy  traffic. 

Creosoted  wood  block  paving  is  used  to  a  large  extent 
and  it  is  the  nearest  rival  of  asphalt.  It  is  higher  in  first 
cost  but  more  easily  repaired  and  of  longer  life  under  light 
traffic.  It  needs,  however,  a  concrete  foundation  and  any 
breaks  must  be  immediately  repaired.  It  is  more  slippery 
under  some  conditions  and  less  so  under  others,  and  at  times 
has  a  certain  odor. 

For  streets  in  outlying  districts  and  in  small  towns, 
macadam  or  crushed  stone  is  one  of  the  best  and  cheapest 
forms  of  paving  if  properly  constructed  and  kept  in  repair. 
As  only  the  pressure  and  moisture  serve  to  bind  the  particles 
together,  it  wears  much  more  rapidly  than  paving  in  which 
the  particles  are  firmly  bonded  together  as  with  asphalt,  and 
consequently  it  produces  clouds  of  dust  unless  kept  clean  and 
well  flushed. 

Some  success  has  attended  the  plan  of  impregnating 
macadam  streets  with  coal-tar  preparations,  the  tar  per- 
meating a  thin  layer  of  the  surface  of  the  street  and  serving 
as  a  binder,  producing  almost  the  effect  of  an  asphalt  street. 
Such  treatment  must  be  applied  with  great  care  and  renewed 
annually  or  oftener.  It  makes  a  street  much  superior  to  the 
untreated   macadam.     In    134   English   cities,   treatment  of 


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GATI•:^VA^,    SANSSOUCI,    POTSDAM 
A  spli'ihUil  example  of  a  park  entrance 


SUll.lAN     (lAHDl-.N,    >ANSSOUCI,    POTSDAM 


STREET  CONSTRUCTION  235 

this  character  lasted  on  the  average  in  half  the  cases  from 
six  to  nine  months  and  a  year  for  the  remainder.  The 
second  treatment  is  often  only  required  in  the  center  of  the 
road. 

The  cost  of  such  treatment  was  2  to  23^  cents  a  square 
yard  when  machine  spread  and  23^  to  3  cents  a  square  yard 
when  hand  spread.  The  average  consumption  of  tar  was 
from  3  to  5  gallons  per  square  yard  in  99  cases  and  5  to  7 
gallons  and  over,  in  the  remainder.  Sand,  granite  chippings, 
gravel  dust,  cinder  dust,  etc.,  were  used  as  a  surfacing,  with 
some  preference  expressed  for  small  granite  chippings  (3^ 
inch).  The  cost  of  tar  was  from  2  to  8  cents  a  gallon  and 
averaged  4  to  5  cents  a  gallon. 

The  treatment  of  streets  and  roads  with  heavy  petroleum 
crude  oils  also  has  the  effect  of  a  binder  and  settles  the  dust 
question,  although  being  dirty  in  appearance  and  frequently 
ill  of  odor  it  often  proves  a  nuisance.  Some  oils  also  cause 
the  loss  of  eyebrows. 

Tar,  it  is  also  asserted,  causes  eye  trouble,  but  tests  on 
the  eyes  of  rabbits  and  dogs  have  not  borne  this  out.  It  is 
also  claimed  that  the  acridene  fumes  from  hot  tar  cause 
epitheliomatous  cancer,  while  corneal  ulcer  has  been  caused 
by  exceedingly  fine  pitch  dust.  While  doubtless  acridene  is 
irritating  to  the  skin  and  mucous  membrane,  a  reasonable 
degree  of  care  on  the  part  of  workmen  will  prevent  injury 
when  tar  preparations  are  being  put  down. 

Asphalt,  granite  blocks  and  wood  blocks  are  the  leading 
forms  of  street  surfacing  for  cities,  and  though  their  first 
cost  is  high,  especially  for  the  smaller  cities,  they  will  prove 
in  the  long  run  one  of  the  best  investments  that  a  city  can 
make. 

In  the  construction  of  these  standard  forms  of  streets, 
the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  they  are  prop- 
erly built,  with  foundations  capable  of  carrying  the  traffic, 
for  the  surfacing  of  the  street  may  be  changed  or  renewed  at 
any  time  if  the  foundation  has  been  properly  laid,  but  unless 
the  foundation  is  good,  any  form  of  surfacing  will  not  give 
service. 


236  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Abroad,  the  greatest  care  is  given  to  the  foundation,  it 
being  finished  smooth  and  true  to  template  without  the 
sUghtest  irregularity.  Often  a  light  surfacing  of  mortar  is 
added,  after  the  manner  of  concrete  sidewalk,  so  that  when 
it  comes  to  putting  down  the  asphalt  or  other  paving,  no 
allowances  have  to  be  made  for  imperfect  foundation. 

In  the  laying  of  asphalt,  German  cities  go  very  thoroughy 
into  the  questions  of  finish  and  repairs.  The  specifications 
require  that  the  top  of  the  finished  surface  be  entirely  smooth 
and  without  waves,  and  that  at  no  place  shall  the  water 
stand  on  the  surface  or  in  the  gutter.  For  three  years  after 
completion,  the  contractor  must  maintain  the  street  at  his 
own  expense.  During  the  succeeding  twelve  years,  the  con- 
tractor must  maintain  it  for  a  certain  fixed  annual  payment. 
He  is  also  paid  for  re-covering  any  portion  torn  up  for 
excavations. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  cost  of  maintenance  of  the 
street  for  a  period  of  fifteen  years  under  ordinary  usage,  is 
known  within  reasonable  limits  before  the  work  is  begun. 
As  the  contractors  are  thus  interested  in  the  maintenance  of 
the  street,  they  repair  breaks  at  the  earliest  possible  mo- 
ment, saving  themselves  expense  by  prompt  action. 

American  streets  usually  present  the  poor  appearance 
they  do  on  account  of  neglect.  Small  holes  increase  quickly 
in  size,  traflTic  is  disturbed  and  the  cost  of  repairs  becomes 
much  greater,  and  being  paid  on  a  per  yard  basis  in  many 
cases,  the  larger  the  holes  the  more  there  is  in  it  for  the 
contractors. 

One  source  of  injury  to  street  surfacing  not  permitted 
abroad  is  that  of  bonfires,  which  injure  the  asphalt  and 
wood  block  streets  particularly,  and  such  injury  if  not 
looked  after  at  once  means  a  large  repair  bill  later.  The 
Borough  of  Manhattan  in  1910  spent  $12,000  repairing 
damage  caused  by  bonfires.  If  this  could  be  assessed  against 
the  celebrants,  less  enthusiasm  in  this  direction  would  prob- 
ably be  manifested. 

A  street,  in  addition  to  the  traffic  which  passes  over  its 
surface,  serves   other   highly  important   functions,    carrying 


STREET  CONSTRUCTION 


237 


various  subsurface  utilities  which  are  necessary  to  the 
existence  of  the  city.  Among  such  utihties  are  gas  and 
water  mains,  sewers,  electric  light  and  power  cables,  tele- 
phone, police  and  fire  alarm  signal  wires,  pneumatic  mail 
tubes  and  often  subways  and  subsurface  vehicular  traffic 
tubes. 

The  accompanying  diagram.  Fig.  64,  is  of  a  street  which 
for  purposes  of  description  may  be  termed  a  "Metropolitan 


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Fig.  64.   cross  section  of  a  double-decked  street  suitable  for 
metropolitan  business  districts 

Street."  It  shows,  arranged  in  the  most  advantageous 
manner,  such  utilities,  and  it  is  a  form  suitable  to  a  com- 
paratively narrow  thoroughfare,  100  feet  or  so  wide,  which 
cannot  be  widened  and  which  must  accommodate  a  heavy 
volume  of  traffic. 

The  street  is  double  decked,  with  a  surface  and  a  subsur- 
face level,  the  surface  level  being  used  for  pedestrians,  light 
vehicular  traffic  and  street  cars,  and  the  subsurface  level 
for  express  trains,  heavy  traffic  and  auxiUary  purposes. 
The  entire  lower  level  is  clear,  except  for  the  supporting 
columns,  while  the  express  trains  arc  protected  ])y  a  railing. 

Through  the  center  of  the  street  on  the  surface  is  run 


238  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

a  safety  isle  between  the  street  car  tracks,  continuous 
except  at  the  intersection  of  cross  streets.  This  safety  isle 
is  penetrated  by  a  continuous  slot,  heavily  grated,  which 
serves  as  a  ventilator  for  the  subsurface  level,  while  addi- 
tional ventilators  are  in  the  sidewalk  adjoining  the  building 
line.  Along  the  safety  isle  are  also  the  trolley  wire  poles, 
which  are  of  an  ornamental  character  to  correspond  with 
the  street  lighting  poles  along  the  sidewalks.  The  under- 
ground trolley  wire  system  could  be  used  instead  of  the 
overhead,  but  the  latter  is  more  reliable  and  satisfactory 
in  operation  and  enables  the  cars  to  run  over  suburban 
lines  without  loss  of  time  in  lowering  trolley  and  shoe. 

Under  the  vehicle  ways  of  the  subsurface  level  are  two 
sewers,  the  smaller  one  for  rain  water  and  the  larger  for 
heavy  sewage.  This  separation  is  advisable  for  a  number 
of  reasons.  An  overflow  conduit  leads  from  the  rain-water 
sewer  to  the  other,  to  take  care  of  the  surplus  water  in  case 
of  storms. 

A  narrow-gauge  track  may  be  laid  over  the  sewers,  to 
be  used  for  hauling  freight  and  for  the  refuse  carts.  The 
latter  are  for  the  purpose  of  removing  the  rubbish  and  waste 
of  the  street  above,  which  is  swept  into  pits  or  chutes  in  the 
street,  arranged  with  a  cover  at  the  top  and  a  gate  at  the 
bottom,  enabling  the  contents  to  be  dropped  directly  into 
the  rubbish  carts.  Removable  openings  into  the  sewer  are 
placed  directly  under  such  chutes,  so  that  in  winter,  snow 
may  be  shovelled  or  dumped  directly  into  either  sewer,  and 
the  street  thus  be  quickly  cleared. 

The  heavy  traffic  vehicles  unload  directly  into  the  base- 
ments of  the  buildings  and  ashes  and  garbage  are  removed 
directly  to  the  rubbish  carts,  without  ever  getting  into  the 
street  above.  This  cuts  down  street  cleaning  to  a  minimum, 
and  leaves  the  whole  street  for  traffic. 

Pipe  galleries  are  provided  under  the  sidewalks  on  each 
side  for  gas  mains,  heating  pipes,  electric  light  and  power 
cables,  fire  alarm,  police  alarm  and  telephone  wires  and 
pneumatic  mail  tubes,  which  are  thus  always  readily  acces- 
sible.   The  water  mains,  owing  to  their  great  weight,   are 


STREET  CONSTRUCTION 


239 


not  carried  in  the  pipe  gallery,  but  in  a  trench  under  the 
subsurface  level,  having  a  removable  cover,  one  main  on 
each  side  to  obviate  the  necessity  of  pipes  crossing. 

The  accompanying  diagram,  Fig.  65,  shows  a  similar 
form  of  "Metropolitan  Street"  adapted  for  the  purpose  of 
a  thickly  populated  residential  street.  The  width  of  the 
street  is  taken  at  120  feet,  although  it  may  be  more,  indeed 
up  to  any  width  desired. 

A  four-track  subway  is  provided  on  the  subsurface  level, 


Fig.  65.   cross  section  of  metropolitan  residential  street  with 

express  and  local  subway  railways,  general  utility  service 

tunnels  and  street  railways  on  both  sides  of  a  floral 

AREA 

the  middle  tracks  for  express  trains  and  the  outer  tracks  for 
local  service. 

-  This  subway  is  shown  similar  to  some  sections  of  the 
New  York  subway,  with,  however,  numerous  improvements, 
based  upon  the  writer's  experience  with  that  undertaking,  he 
having  been  for  four  years,  during  its  design  and  construc- 
tion, connected  with  its  engineering  staff,  and  upon  the  result 
of  foreign  experience. 

The  width  of  the  New  York  subway,  12f  feet  between 
centers  of  columns,  is  insufTicient,  as  13J  to  14  feet  should 
be  allowed.  The  circulation  of  air  is  very  poor,  forcing  the 
adoption  of  artificial  ventilators,  which  have  not  proven 
satisfactory. 


240  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

In  order  to  produce  an  adequate  circulation  of  air,  it  is 
necessary  to  run  the  trains  through  individual  tunnels, 
each  train  thus  acting  as  a  plunger,  forcing  air  out  ahead 
and  drawing  it  in  behind.  This  division  into  separate 
tunnels  is  best  accomplished  by  means  of  a  partition  be- 
tween the  tracks  as  indicated  by  the  diagram. 

The  tracks  are  shown  placed  slightly  off  center,  in  order 
to  make  room  for  a  walk  at  the  side.  This  walk  is  for  the 
use  of  passengers  in  cases  of  accident,  and  for  the  use  of 
the  trackwalkers.  It  is  also  a  protection  against  the  third 
rail  which  it  serves  to  cover. 

Air  gains  ingress  and  egress  at  the  stations  and  through 
ventilators  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  street  over  the 
express  tracks.  These  ventilating  columns  are  of  an  orna- 
mental character  and  of  ample  capacity,  and  should  be 
placed  at  least  one  every  block.  Every  fourth  or  fifth 
column  should  be  crowned  with  a  four-dial  illuminating 
clock,  and  the  intermediate  ones  with  electric  globes.  The 
local  tracks  are  ventilated  at  intervals  by  the  grated  open- 
ings at  the  side  of  the  central  grass  plot. 

The  arrangement  of  the  remainder  of  the  underground 
portion  of  the  street  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  previously 
shown.  A  general  service  tunnel  is  placed  on  each  side, 
with  sewers  and  narrow-gauge  tracks  for  the  refuse  carts, 
while  chutes  lead  from  the  street  above  for  dumping  refuse 
and  snow.  The  water  mains,  gas  mains  and  other  piping 
and  cables  are  carried  at  the  sides  of  the  tunnels. 

The  surface  cars  run  on  either  side  of  the  central  park- 
way of  the  street  and  low  safety  isles  are  provided,  adding 
to  the  safety  and  convenience  of  the  passengers  and  indicat- 
ing where  the  cars  stop. 

The  central  parkway  area  is  turfed  and  laid  out  with 
small  ornamental  trees,  placed  to  good  advantage  and 
trimmed  in  accordance  with  a  well-considered  design.  No 
railing  is  required  around  this  park  area,  as  it  is  sufficiently 
protected  by  its  curbing.  As  it  extends  to  the  intersecting 
streets,  it  forms  a  series  of  small,  narrow  parks  along  the 
whole  length  of  the  avenue.     With  the  trees  along  the  edge 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL 


241 


S«y9S#KMy^^fr'>S«SOS^»S»S«VS»!»!»S« 


of  the  sidewalks,  turfed  around  their  bases  and  the  balconies 
of  the  buildings  decorated  with  miniature  flower  gardens,  the 
effect  produced  by  the  street  would  be  most  attractive  and 
inviting.  The  lighting  poles  and  column  ventilators  are 
an  added  embellishment,  and  since  the  surface  is  never 
likely  to  be  torn  up,  the 
avenue  will  remain  in  an 
agreeably  finished  state. 

Avenues  of  such  a 
character  are  not  only 
highly  efficient  in  their 
primary  purposes,  that  of 
being  a  means  of  commu- 
nication and  conveyance 
of  materials  to  and  from 
the  houses,  but  in  their 
aesthetic  effect  they  add 
distinction  to  the  city  and 
serve  to  increase  the  pride 
and  civic  enthusiasm  of  Fig 
the  whole  body  of  citizens 

In  streets  in 
traffic  is  not  so  great  as 
to  demand  underground  facilities,  it  is  highly  desirable  to 
have  a  small  general  service  tunnel,  such  as  is  shown  in 
diagram.  Fig.  66.  A  single  sewer  and  refuse  cart  tracks, 
with  chutes,  will  suffice  for  the  refuse  and  snow  to  be  re- 
moved. The  principle  use  of  such  a  tunnel,  however,  is 
to  carry  the  pipes,  cables,  etc. 

(B)  Sewage  Disposal 
System  of  Sewers;  Sewage  Treatment  Plants 

Of  the  indispensable  elements  in  the  planning  of  a 
city,  sewers  are  among  the  most  important.  Baumeister 
in  establishing  the  theory  of  city  planning  gave  them  an 
equal  value  with  streets  and  traffic. 

A  comprehensive   and  efficient  sewage  drainage  system 


66.        GENERAL     PUBLIC     UTILITY 
TUNNEL    FOR    WATER    AND    GAS    MAINS, 
which     ELECTRIC     CABLES,     ETC.,     REFUSE     CAR 
TRACK  AND   SEWER 


242  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

must  therefore  be  the  first  work  of  the  city  planner,  and  due 
allowance  and  provision  must  be  made  for  increasing  such 
facihties  as  the  city  grows  in  population.  It  is,  indeed, 
scarcely  possible  for  any  one  who  has  not  lived  through  a 
serious  strike  of  garbage  removal  employees  to  understand 
what  the  immediate  removal  of  waste  material  means  to  a 
city,  and  scarcely  possible  for  one  who  has,  to  overestimate 
its  importance. 

The  character  and  size  of  the  sewage  system  adopted 
depends  on  the  location  of  the  city  and  the  natural  condi- 
tions and  methods  to  be  adopted  in  disposal  of  the  sewage. 

The  proper  disposal  of  the  sewage  is  one  of  great  con- 
sequence, since  epidemics  are  frequently  caused  by  improper 
disposal,  especially  in  the  case  of  discharge  into  rivers  or 
lowlands. 

It  is  impossible  to  lay  down  any  hard  and  fast  rules  as 
to  which  system  of  sewage  disposal  is  the  best,  since  a  system 
suitable  for  one  city  will  not  answer  the  requirements  of 
another.  The  commerce  and  industries  of  a  city,  the  nature 
of  its  streets  and  traffic  and  other  factors  make  the  problem 
one  which  requires  the  most  careful  consideration  and  one 
in  the  solution  of  which  only  the  most  experienced  engineers, 
acquainted  with  the  progress  of  the  science  of  waste  dis- 
posal in  the  most  progressive  countries,  should  be  retained. 

Sewage  disposal  is  in  reality  a  new  science,  and  great 
advancement  has  been  made  in  the  last  few  decades,  prin- 
cipally abroad,  so  that  every  advantage  should  be  taken 
of  modern  developments  in  the  planning  of  a  city's  sewer 
system. 

Cities  which  are  located  on  a  large  and  swift-flowing 
river  may  without  risk  discharge  their  sewage  directly  into 
the  stream,  if  floating  debris  is  prevented  from  escaping. 

The  self-purifying  power  of  water  is  usually  under- 
estimated, especially  that  of  rivers.  The  presence  in  river 
water  of  a  certain  amount  of  oxygen,  necessary  for  satura- 
tion, will  effect  the  mineralization  and  gasification  of  con- 
siderable quantities  of  putrescible  substances,  by  means  of 
biological  processes  which  rapidly  develop  when  such  sub- 


SEWAGE   DISPOSAL  243 

stances  are  present.  These  operations  precipitate  a  sludge 
on  the  bottom  of  the  river  which  is  as  harmless  as  silt, 
while  the  gases  are  emitted  at  the  surface.  If  too  large 
a  quantity  of  sewage,  however,  is  emptied  into  a  river,  the 
odor  emitted  will  make  the  river  banks  uninhabitable,  while 
the  sludge  will  accumulate  and  clog  the  channel  of  the  river 
and  the  process  of  the  self-purification  of  the  water  will 
not  be  completed  before  it  reaches  a  lower  city  and  causes 
contamination  at  that  point. 

Depending  on  the  nature  of  the  city's  streets  and  the 
nature  of  the  sewage  to  be  removed,  a  single  or  a  double 
sewage  system  may  be  adopted.  In  the  latter  form,  one 
sewer  is  for  rain  water  and  the  other  for  strong  sewage. 
The  rain-water  sewer  is  for  carrying  off  rain  water  from 
the  buildings  and  streets,  while  the  other  is  for  toilets,  fac- 
tory waste,  etc. 

The  former  may  go  directly  into  the  river,  while  the 
latter  is  best  disposed  of  in  a  sewage  treatment  plant,  of 
which  there  are  many  different  types. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  discharge  of  the  street  detritus 
into  the  rain-water  sewers,  suitable  overflow  cesspools 
should  be  located  at  each  gutter  inlet,  for  its  collection, 
as  in  some  cases,  especially  in  heavy  traffic  streets,  the 
detritus  is  of  an  even  more  putrescible  nature  than  the 
strong  sewage. 

In  some  cities,  the  detritus  of  the  street  is  allowed  to  go 
directly  into  the  sewer  and  the  flushing  of  the  sewer  is 
left  to  occasional  storms.  The  result  is  that  the  sewers  are 
frequently  clogged  and  must  often  be  cleaned. 

Before  streets  are  flushed,  they  should  be  properly  cleaned 
to  prevent  the  filling  up  of  cesspools  and  sewers.  With 
well-paved  streets,  properly  kept  clean,  there  will  be  a 
minimum  of  detritus  and  the  sewers  will  require  little 
attention. 

It  is  undesirable,  under  any  and  all  circumstances,  to 
discharge  into  sewers  certain  waste  material,  such  for 
example  as  gasoline  in  garage  districts  or  acid  refuse  from 
factories.     Gasoline  fumes  in  sewers  often  result  in  dangerous 


244  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

explosions,  throwing  the  manhole  covers  into  the  air,  with 
great  damage  to  property  and  danger  to  the  public. 

Neither  should  any  steam  or  other  vapors  be  discharged 
into  the  sewers.  A  bad  practice  much  followed  is  to  dis- 
charge blow-offs  of  boilers  into  the  sewers.  Such  blow-offs 
should  be  discharged  into  blow-off  tanks,  from  which,  after 
the  steam  is  condensed  and  the  pressure  released,  the  water 
may  be  discharged  into  the  sewers. 

It  would  not  be  economical  to  construct  the  rain-water 
sewers  of  a  capacity  sufficient  to  carry  the  maximum  flow, 
as  this  is  in  case  of  storms  often  ten  times  as  much  as  the 
normal  requirements.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  have 
storm  overflows  connected  with  the  strong  sewers,  by  means 
of  which  rainfall  may  be  temporarily  taken  care  of. 

As  sewage  treatment  plants  are  constructed  to  accommo- 
date several  times  the  normal  capacity,  it  is  only  in  the 
case  of  bad  storms  that  the  strong  sewer  will  carry  a  greater 
volume  than  can  be  accommodated  by  the  plant,  but  when 
such  a  condition  arises,  the  surplus  over  the  capacity  of  the 
plant  must  be  discharged  into  the  river,  and  while  this 
surplus  will  contain  a  certain  amount  of  strong  sewage,  it 
will  only  continue  for  a  short  time,  and  will  be  so  diluted 
as  to  usually  produce  no  ill  effects. 

The  respective  advantages  of  the  single  and  double 
system  of  sewers  are  numerous,  but  local  conditions  must 
always  finally  be  the  determining  factor  in  the  adoption  of 
the  one  system  or  the  other. 

In  the  disposal  of  strong  sewage,  several  systems  of 
treatment  are  employed,  among  them  being  sewage  farms, 
septic  tanks,  mechanical  screening  and  sedimentation,  the 
lignite  method,  trickhng  filters,  biological  filters,  land  irriga- 
tion and  sprinkler  systems. 

Some  of  the  systems  are  only  partial  treatments  and 
combinations  are  needed  to  effect  the  complete  treatment. 

In  the  sewage  farms  and  land  irrigation  systems,  large 
tracts  of  land  are  required,  and  as  the  city  grows,  these 
tracts  may  become  so  valuable  as  to  cause  the  more  com- 
pact biological  works  to  be  substituted. 


CARE   OF   STREETS  245 

The  principal  object  of  sewage  purification  is  to  dispose 
of  the  sewage  in  the  most  unobjectionable  manner  possible. 
In  so  doing,  however,  valuable  by-products  are  produced, 
principally  fertilizer.  Whiskey  has  also  been  produced 
both  in  Germany  and  in  this  country  as  such  a  by-product, 
in  an  experimental  way,  but  it  has  not  been  found  salable, 
although  of  good  intrinsic  quality,  in  either  country,  and 
the  production  here  will  undoubtedly  remain  in  the  stage  of 
a  successful  experiment,  similar  to  the  experiments  in  Ger- 
many which  did  not  survive  the  initial  stage  and  came  to 
an  end  many  years  ago. 

German  chemical  science  has  reached  such  a  state  of 
perfection,  however,  that  it  is  feasible  to  reconvert  toilet 
sewage  into  absolutely  pure  drinking  water  in  a  very  short 
time,  though  such  a  conversion  is  never  hkely  to  be  of  any 
extended  practical  use.  It  indicates,  however,  the  entire 
practicability  of  sewage  purification. 

(C)  Care  of  Streets 

How  to  Preserve  Street  Surfaces;  Street  Sanding; 
Street  Flushing 

After  laying  an  expensive  asphalt  or  wood  block  street, 
city  authorities  in  American  cities  seem  to  feel  that  their 
whole  duty  has  been  performed.  The  street  is  immediately 
left  to  the  mercy  of  traffic  and  the  elements  and  nothing 
more  is  done  until  some  serious  repairs  become  necessary. 

-  A  very  different  process  is  followed  in  European  cities, 
which  consists  in  protecting  the  street  and  in  facilitating 
traffic,  so  that  much  greater  service  is  gotten  out  of  a  street 
than  is  the  case  in  America. 

The  principal  expedient  adopted  is  to  sprinkle  or  cover 
the  street  lightly  with  various  substances  whenever  weather 
conditions  or  other  reasons  require  it. 

Sand  is  much  used  for  the  purpose,  and  is  scattered  over 
the  streets  in  a  number  of  ways.  Sometimes  a  man  with  a 
trowel-like  tool,  carr^'ing  a  bag  of  sand  suspended  from  his 
neck,  sows  the  street  with  the  sand  after  the  manner  of  a 


246 


CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


farmer  sowing  grain  broadcast.  Other  methods  of  distrib- 
uting the  sand  are  by  means  of  small  box-like  carts  and 
shovels,  one  man  pushing  the  cart  and  another  sowing  the 
sand.  The  cart  is  often  the  same  one  used  for  collecting 
refuse. 

The  sand  sower  gains  considerable  skill  and  works  with 
such  rapidity  that  the  cost  of  the  work  is  insignificant  in 
comparison  with  the  benefits  derived.  A  skillful  man  can 
cover  from  80,000  to  100,000  square  feet  an  hour,  or  half  a 


Figs.  67  and  68.     method  of  sub-surface  draining  of  wooden 
block  street  paving  in  berlin 
One  of  the  many  unseen  features  which  contribute  to  the  appearance  and  ease  of  upkeep 
of  Berlin's  streets 

mile  of  ordinary  street.  The  sprinkling  of  the  sidewalks 
may  be  left  to  the  householders. 

The  method  with  shovels  and  cart  is  not  so  expeditious, 
since  the  sand  in  such  cases  is  spread  more  thickly.  There 
are  also  automatic  sand-sowing  machines  of  different  types, 
which  are  more  rapid. 

Among  other  materials  used  are  a  coarse  sand  or  very 
fine  gravel,  and  fine  stone  particles.  All  such  materials 
should  be  dr>^  and  perfectly  clean  and  free  from  dirt  or 
impurities  which  would  prevent  free  scattering  or  subse- 
quently cause  dust.  Ashes  are  only  used  in  case  of  an 
emergency. 


CARE   OF   STREETS  247 

The  material  for  street  sowing  is  kept  in  boxes,  holding 
from  one  to  three  cubic  yards,  in  convenient  locations,  being 
thus  at  hand  whenever  needed  for  use. 

Applications  are  made  when  the  streets  are  covered  with 
ice,  sleet  or  frozen  snow,  in  the  case  of  cold,  drizzling  rains, 
or  during  precipitation  caused  by  fog  or  after  heavy  rains 
when  the  weather  conditions  are  such  that  the  streets  will 
not  readily  dry.  A  twofold  object  is  attained  by  such 
sowing;  the  slipperiness  of  the  street  is  overcome,  and 
safety  for  vehicles  and  pedestrians  assured,  and  the  surplus 


Fig.  69.   method  of  draining  rails  of  street  railway  system, 

BERLIN 

In  order  to  protect  the  Asphalt  Paving  from  decay.  Another  of  the  many  unseen 
features  of  construction  which  have  contributed  greatly  to  the  appearance,  cleanliness  and 
ease  of  upkeep  of  Berlin  streets 

water  is  absorbed  by  the  sand  so  that  it  does  not  lie  and 
rot  the  surfacing. 

Thus  the  greatest  objection  to  asphalt  streets,  their 
slipperiness,  is  obviated. 

As  streets  are  only  flushed  at  times  when  the  water  will 
readily  dry  off,  there  is  no  occasion  to  sand  the  streets  after 
flushing. 

When  bodies  of  men  are  to  pass  over  icy  streets,  the 
sand  or  small  gravel  to  be  scattered  is  first  moistened  with 
a  solution  of  salt,  as  it  will  then  the  more  quickly  attack 
the  ice  of  the  street. 

Sand  in  being  sown  on  the  streets  should  be  used  as 
sparingly  as  possible  to  accomplish  the  desired  result.  A 
very  small  quantity  is  found  suflicient  for  a  considerable 
area.  From  2  to  10  liters  suflTice  for  1,000  square  meters, 
which  is  1  cubic  yard  for  from  150,000  to  750,000  square 
feet  of  surface  or  from  3,000  to  15,000  feet  of  50-foot 
street. 

When  the  conditions  of  ice  or  moisture  which  made  nee- 


248  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

essary  the  application  of  the  sand  have  passed,  it  should 
all  be  removed,  as  otherwise  the  streets  will  become  dusty. 

In  good  weather  asphalt  and  wood  block  streets  are 
treated  with  an  oil  emulsion.  Applied  five  or  six  times 
during  the  summer,  all  the  desirable  results  are  accom- 
plished that  follow  from  a  daily  watering. 

Street  sweeping  in  winter,  a  difficult  work,  owing  to  the 
cold  dust  stirred  up,  is  accomplished  in  an  efficacious  manner 
by  first  sprinkling  the  streets  with  a  chloride  of  calcium 
solution  which  lays  the  dust  and  so  melts  the  frozen  dirt 
that  the  street-sweeping  machines  can  accomplish  their 
work. 

(D)  Street  Cleaning 

Hours  for  Street  Cleaning;    Methods  of  Street  Cleaning; 
Garbage  and  Snow  Removal 

The  cleaning  of  streets,  to  be  properly  carried  out, 
should  be  under  the  supervision  of  engineers  of  experience, 
as  where  the  work  is  put  in  the  hands  of  mere  politicians, 
as  a  sort  of  any  good  fellow's  job,  the  results,  as  seen  in  so 
many  American  cities,  are  about  what  could  be  expected. 

The  lack  of  system,  and  want  of  technical  training  on 
the  part  of  the  officials  in  charge,  makes  street  cleaning 
unnecessarily  expensive,  leaves  the  streets  in  a  bad  condi- 
tion and  causes  the  cleaning  to  be  carried  out  in  disagree- 
able and  unsanitary  ways. 

In  foreign  cities,  engineers  specialize  on  this  subject. 
Street  cleaning  has  been  reduced  to  a  science,  and  econ- 
omy, efficiency  and  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  public 
is  considered  at  every  point. 

The  purpose  of  street  cleaning  is  to  remove  as  quickly 
and  as  cheaply  as  possible,  all  foreign  matter  in  the  streets 
and  to  thus  conduce  to  the  health  of  the  public  by  minimiz- 
ing the  circulation  of  germ  laden  dust. 

The  cleaning  of  streets  should  be  carried  out  in  a  system- 
atic and  thorough  manner.  The  cleaners  should  proceed 
in  crews  with  the  necessary  apparatus,  both  to  clean  the 
streets  and  the  sidewalks  as  well  if  necessary,  and  the  lay- 


HICiHLV   KKFIC.IKNT   REFISI-:   COLLEC.TIXC,    SYSTEMS   AS    i;.MI'l.(  )M.I)    IN 

THE    PRINCIPAL    GERMAN    CITIES 

Do!  lorn    dumping    can,   !  if  led  from    sunken    receptacle    in    sidewalk.     Refuse    can  for 

streel  sweepings.    Sectional  refuse  collecting  cart  with  detachable  electric  automobile-tractor 


REFUS1-:    DKSTHLCTION    PLANT,    HAMBURG 

The  largest  in  Europe.     The  electric  power  generated  operates  llw  city 

water  pumping  plant 


SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    PLANT,    PHILADELPHIA 


STREET   CLEANING  249 

out  of  the  work  should  be  such  that  no  member  of  the  crew 
needs  to  wait  on  the  progress  of  the  other,  but  all  proceed 
simultaneously,  and  when  they  have  passed  through  the 
street,  the  work  will  be  done.  The  method  of  piecemeal 
street  cleaning,  with  the  householder  sweeping  the  dirt  into 
the  street,  the  street  cleaner  sweeping  it  into  piles,  and  the 
piles  being  removed  by  wagons,  with  the  occasional  passing 
first  on  one  side  of  the  street  and  then  on  the  other  of 
some  piece  of  street  cleaning  apparatus,  results  in  a  con- 
tinual stirring  up  of  dust,  to  the  great  discomfort  and  incon- 
venience of  all  concerned,  while  the  street  never  really  gets 
cleaned. 

The  number  of  men  in  the  cleaning  crew  depends  on 
the  kind  of  machinery  used.  As  no  machine  is  capable  of 
reaching  all  parts  of  the  street,  a  certain  amount  of  manual 
sweeping  is  necessary,  especially  when  the  sidewalks  are 
cleaned  by  the  municipality.  Such  manual  sweeping  should 
be  carried  on  in  conjunction  with  the  machine  sweeping,  so 
that,  as  indicated,  the  whole  width  of  the  street  will  be 
cleaned  at  once. 

In  order  that  such  cleaning  may  proceed  with  efficiency 
and  despatch,  and  consequently  with  economy,  the  streets 
must  be  practically  clear  of  traffic,  as  the  presence  of 
vehicles,  especially  those  standing  at  the  curb,  greatly 
delays  the  work  of  the  crew. 

As  the  operation  of  such  a  crew  also  handicaps  traffic, 
and  as  the  public  prefers  to  see  the  streets  clean,  rather 
than  to  see  them  being  cleaned,  it  is  essential  to  select  a 
suitable  hour  for  cleaning.  German  cities  have  conducted 
numerous  tests  for  finding  out  the  most  favorable  hour. 
The  city  of  Dresden  adopted  the  practice  of  cleaning  the 
main  streets  in  the  early  morning  hours,  beginning  about 
4  A.M.,  and  finishing  the  business  sections  by  6  a.m,  some 
20  to  30  per  cent  of  the  entire  street  area.  The  cleaning 
of  the  remainder  of  the  streets  proceeds  immediately  after 
the  main  streets  are  finished,  and  the  whole  city  is  cleaned 
by  9  A.M.  Only  streets  in  outlying  districts  are  cleaned 
later  in   the   day,   often   in  the   afternoon,   but   all   streets 


250  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

must  be  cleaned  once  a  day,  whether  there  is  much  dirt 
or  Uttle  on  them. 

The  practice  of  Dresden  has  been  followed  by  practically 
all  prominent  German  cities.  Some  of  those  of  less  im- 
portance, owing  to  conditions  of  light  traffic,  continue  in 
old  methods,  but  the  larger  cities  have  been  forced  to  adopt 
the  early  morning  plan.  The  advantages  of  the  system  are 
that  the  cleaning  can  be  carried  out  by  daylight  and  is 
consequently  better  performed  than  when  carried  out  under 
artificial  light,  that  the  workmen  are  more  efficient  as  day 
workers  than  as  night  workers,  and  that  during  the  early 
morning  hours  traffic  is  at  the  minimum. 

It  is  essential  that  the  sidewalks  and  other  adjoining 
spaces  be  cleaned  before  the  crews  pass  through  the  street, 
as  otherwise  the  cleaning  would  not  be  thorough.  Cities 
should,  therefore,  clean  the  sidewalks  in  business  districts, 
owing  to  the  early  visits  of  the  crews,  while  house  owners 
in  the  residential  districts  which  are  visited  from  six  to 
nine  o'clock  by  the  cleaners  are  required  to  have  the  streets 
in  front  of  their  houses  cleaned  and  ash  and  refuse  carts 
ready  for  removal  by  a  scheduled  time,  under  penalty  of 
a  fine.  No  refuse  may  be  placed  on  the  sidewalk,  but 
must  be  kept  on  the  householders'  premises  in  such  places 
as  will  not  cause  annoyance  to  the  neighbors.  As  the  street 
cleaning  crews  may  be  expected  at  a  fixed  time  daily,  the 
householders  are  able  to  make  their  arrangements  accord- 
ingly, and  thus  the  whole  process  is  carried  out  in  the  most 
expeditious  and  convenient  manner. 

The  crews  are  compelled  to  work  in  a  manner  as  un- 
objectionable as  possible,  with  a  minimum  of  dust  raising 
and  noise  making. 

Conditions  of  such  a  kind  can  only  be  brought  about 
when  the  department  itself  is  efficiently  administered  by 
capable  and  technically  trained  officials,  who  devote  their 
time  and  energies  to  the  duties  in  hand  and  not  to  political 
activity  and  experimental  devices,  and  when  regulations 
are  such  that  the  householders  are  compelled  by  law  to 
co-operate  with  the  department. 


STREET   CLEANING  251 

In  the  removal  of  snow,  American  cities  are  chronically 
slow,  having  an  abiding  faith  in  a  favorable  change  of 
weather.  The  ever-ready  excuse  is  that  not  enough  men  and 
wagons  are  obtainable,  but  in  reality  the  reason  is,  more  fre- 
quently, executive  incompetency,  politics  and  lack  of  system. 

While  the  problem  is  somewhat  difficult  in  America, 
on  account  of  the  heavy  falls  of  snow,  our  cities  are  finan- 
cially well  situated  to  handle  the  matter,  so  that  failure  is 
only  due  to  lack  of  proper  preparations  and  absence  of 
systematization. 

A  highly  effective  plan  for  the  removal  of  snow  is  that 
of  dumping  it  into  sewers,  as  has  been  noted.  Precautions 
must  be  taken  not  to  dump  or  sweep  into  the  sewers  with 
the  snow  any  matter  liable  to  settle  in  the  sewers  and  clog 
them  up,  such  as  street  detritus,  as  the  subsequent  clean- 
ing of  the  sewers  might  prove  more  expensive  than  the 
removal  of  snow  by  some  other  method.  Nor,  in  removing 
snow  by  sewer  dumping,  should  the  amount  of  snow  dumped 
in  at  any  one  time  be  sufficient  to  cause  the  sewer  to  become 
clogged  up. 

Where  sewage  pumping  plants  are  installed  for  elevating 
sewage,  snow  should  not  be  dumped  into  the  sewer  within 
some  2,000  feet  of  the  pumping  station,  as  otherwise  trouble 
with  the  pumps  is  Hkely  to  occur. 

The  swifter  the  flow  of  the  sewer,  the  better  it  is  adapted 
for  purposes  of  snow  removal,  which  is  preferably  carried 
on  at  night  when  the  ordinary  flow  of  the  sewer  is  at  its 
minimum. 

Many  American  cities  are  fortunately  placed  in  having 
large  volumes  of  water  at  their  disposal,  which  may  be 
utilized  in  flushing  snow  and  slush  directly  into  the  sewer, 
a  process  which  has  many  advantages,  especially  when  salt 
water  is  available  for  the  purpose. 

Perhaps  the  most  urgent  of  the  duties  of  the  street- 
cleaning  department  is  the  removal  from  the  streets  of  the 
carcases  of  dead  animals,  not  only  on  account  of  the  un- 
sightliness  of  such  objects,  but  also  because,  especially  in 
summer,    they  are  a  menace  to  health.     Singularly  enough. 


252  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

in  many  American  cities,  including  those  constantly  ex- 
ploiting their  civic  improvement  plans,  there  is  a  lack  of 
co-operation  between  the  police,  to  whose  notice  such 
matters  naturally  first  fall,  and  the  street  cleaning  depart- 
ments, so  that  the  carcases  remain,  often  for  days  before 
being  removed.  It  would  certainly  seem  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  street  planning  to  have  the  streets  free  of  such 
impedimenta. 

Street-cleaning  machinery  consists  principally  of  three 
classes,  sprinkling,  sweeping  and  removing  apparatus,  though 
there  are  many  forms  of  combinations  of  one  or  more  classes 
in  a  single  piece  of  apparatus. 

The  sprinkling  apparatus  is  designed  especially  for 
economical  use  of  water,  from  ^  to  one  gallon  often  suffi- 
cing to  cover  1,000  square  feet  of  surface,  in  the  best 
forms  of  apparatus. 

Cleaning  apparatus  consists  of  rotary  brooms  and  rotary 
scrubber  and  squeegee  devices,  while  vacuum  sweepers  are 
also  coming  into  use. 

The  removing  apparatus  is  usually  in  combination  with 
a  sweeper  or  scrubber,  the  dirt  being  elevated  to  the  cart 
by  mechanical  conveyors  or  suction. 

A  form  of  machine  much  used  in  German  cities  is  a 
gasoline  or  electrically  driven  automobile,  with  a  water  tank 
and  sprinkler,  scrubber  and  squeegee  apparatus  and  a  me- 
chanical conveyor  or  suction  device  for  carrying  refuse  to 
the  collecting  box.  Such  a  machine  is  complete  and  effec- 
tive.    It  may  also  be  found  as  a  horse-drawn  vehicle. 

As  apparatus  of  this  kind  is  expensive,  some  German 
cities,  like  Diisseldorf,  utilize  a  form  of  electrically  driven 
machinery  in  which  the  motive  part,  the  motor,  storage 
battery  and  controls,  with  chauffeur's  seat  mounted  on  the 
front  axle,  is  a  detachable  unit,  which  may  be  employed  in 
connection  successively  with  various  forms  of  cleaning  appa- 
ratus, some  for  summer  use  and  others  for  winter  use. 

Electrically  driven  machinery  has  proven  more  economi- 
cal than  horses  and  it  is  being  substituted  as  rapidly  as 
the  old  equipment  can  be  disposed  of. 


STREET  CLEANING  253 

The  Street  Cleaning  Department  of  Berlin  has  published 
the  following  figures  bearing  on  the  relative  efficiency  of 
motor  and  horse  washing  machines.  The  figures  given  rep- 
resent the  cost  of  operation  per  8-hour  workday: 

Electric-driven  machine: 

Driver's  wage $1.25 

Electricity  consumed  (on  the  average  1.716  kilowatts  per 

hour  at  3.808  cents  per  kilowatt)  in  eight  hours      .      .  .52 
Insurance  of  accumulators  against  deterioration  at  $130.90 

per  year,  or  per  day  ($130.90 -^  300) 44 

Repairs,  figured  on  basis  of  past  experience     ....  .63 

Amortization,  figured  at  15  per  cent 1.49 

More  rapid  consumption  of  rubber  rollers  owing  to  higher 

speed .08 

Total 4.41 

Horse-drawn  machine: 

Driver's  wage 1.12 

Two  horses,  at  $1.51  per  horse 3.02 

Repairs .19 

Amortization,  figured  at  10  per  cent .24 

Total ^57 

Commenting  on  these  figures,  the  department  points  out 
that  an  electric  machine  cleans  in  an  hour  6,937  square  yards 
of  street  surface  or  in  a  day  of  eight  hours  55,496  square 
yards  at  a  cost,  as  shown,  of  $4.41,  while  a  horse-drawn 
machine  cleans  in  the  same  time  only  44,013  square  yards  at 
a  cost  of  $4.57. 

_When  streets  and  sidewalks  are  cleaned  by  hand  sweep- 
ing, there  should  be  provided  receptacles  of  appropriate 
design  and  suitable  capacity  for  the  reception  of  the  street 
sweepings  awaiting  removal.  A  useful  form  of  such  recep- 
tacle would  be  one  which  could  be  removed  without  being 
emptied,  another  being  left  in  its  place  for  the  next  day's 
sweepings.  The  same  method  is  equally  applicable  for 
smaller  garbage  cans  and  household  refuse,  as  has  been 
described.  Other  receptacles  for  street  refuse  may  be  sunk 
in  pits  as  also  noted.  They  are  made  of  steel  with  a  dump- 
ing bottom,  and  the  removal  cart  is  provided  with  means 


254  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

of  lifting  them  out  of  the  pit  to  the  top  of  the  cart,  which 
is  covered  with  a  top  having  special  openings,  so  that  the 
contents  of  the  cans  may  be  dumped  into  the  cart  without 
being  scattered  by  the  wind.  After  being  so  dumped  the 
cans  are  lowered  again  into  place  in  their  pits. 

In  order  to  avoid  handling,  such  can  pits  are  located 
in  the  sidewalk  near  the  curb,  and  the  street  refuse  is 
swept  directly  into  them,  a  small  hinged  flap  bridging  the 
gutter.     The  pit  is,  of  course,  provided  with  a  cover. 

As  stated,  the  removal  of  street  sweepings,  garbage  and 
refuse  should  be  done  in  wagons  invariably  having  covers, 
in  order  to  protect  the  passing  public  and  the  workmen  from 
escaping  particles.  It  is  better,  however,  to  have  it  re- 
moved in  the  original  cans,  leaving  empty  cans  in  place, 
as  this  is  an  absolute  protection  to  all  concerned  and  gets 
the  wagons  off  the  streets  sooner. 

If  wagons  are  used  into  which  the  rubbish  is  dumped, 
they  should  be  of  the  end  dumping  type,  and  in  some  cases 
it  is  preferable  that  the  body  be  detachable  so  that  it  may 
be  lifted  off  by  hoisting  cranes  and  dumped  at  any  desired 
place.  This  is  especially  convenient  in  connection  with  the 
work  of  refuse  destruction  plants. 

(E)  Refuse  Disposal 

Land  and  Water  Dumping;    Incineration  of  Refuse; 
By-Products  of  Garbage  and  Refuse 

In  the  removal  and  disposition  of  the  waste  products 
of  cities,  which  consist  of  ashes,  garbage,  rubbish,  street 
sweepings  and  the  like,  several  methods  are  in  use,  such 
as  dumping  on  land,  dumping  in  water,  plowing  into  the 
land,  feeding  to  swine,  reduction  and  incineration,  the  last 
two  being  the  most  desirable  plans. 

In  choosing  a  system,  a  thorough  study  should  be  made 
of  conditions,  such  as  the  length  of  haul,  convenience, 
nuisance,  etc.,  and  the  system  should  be  selected  which 
best  suits  the  circumstances. 

Land   dumping,  while  the   cheapest  and   easiest  way,  is 


REFUSE   DISPOSAL  255 

highly  objectionable,  particularly  if  the  kitchen  garbage 
is  dumped.  In  any  event  the  dumping  ground  should  be 
located  so  that  the  odors  will  not  become  a  nuisance,  and 
all  combustible  matter  should  at  intervals  be  burned  by 
bonfires.  Such  dumping  grounds  should  be  surrounded  by 
high  fences  to  prevent  scattering  of  light  rubbish  by  the 
wind.  The  land  once  used  for  such  purposes  cannot  be 
built  upon  for  years. 

In  water  dumping,  the  refuse  and  garbage  is  dumped 
into  scows  at  piers,  and  towed  out  to  sea,  far  enough  to 
prevent  incoming  currents  and  wind  from  carrying  floating 
portions  back  to  shore,  as  otherwise  the  beaches  used  for 
bathing  become  littered  with  rubbish  washed  in.  The 
dumping  place  should  also  be  so  selected  that  the  heavy 
material  sinking  will  not  clog  up  the  channels  of  navigation. 
It  is  desirable  to  use  automatic  dumping  scows,  instead  of 
doing  the  unloading  by  hand,  as  the  saving  in  labor  will 
soon  pay  for  the  scows. 

Plowing  into  the  soil  is  of  not  much  service,  and  is 
applicable  only  to  the  kitchen  garbage  portions  of  the  refuse. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  feeding  of  garbage  to  swine.  Some 
cities  have  had  swine  farms,  realizing  a  profit  on  the  ven- 
ture, while  in  many  villages  and  small  towns,  private  parties 
collect  kitchen  garbage  for  this  purpose. 

With  the  exception  of  land  and  water  dumping,  the 
other  processes  require  separation  of  the  refuse  into  dif- 
ferent classes.  The  most  complete  separation  is  required 
in  the  reduction  process. 

Many  cities  employing  the  reduction  process  place  the 
removal  of  their  garbage  in  the  hands  of  private  contrac- 
tors, who  either  pay  the  city  a  lump  sum  annually  for  the 
privilege,  or  who  remove  the  garbage  free  of  cost  to  the 
city,  getting  it  for  taking  it  away. 

The  city  of  New  York  for  instance,  while  it  used  to  pay 
to  a  certain  company  $50,000  annually  for  the  removal  of 
garbage,  closed  in  July,  1913,  a  contract  whereby  it  receives  a 
total  of  $487,500  for  a  five-year  period.  The  city  agrees  as 
under  previous  conditions  to  deliver  the  garbage  at  certain 


256  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

points  of  deposit  on  the  water  front  of  the  three  boroughs, 
Manhattan,  the  Bronx  and  Brooklyn.  For  this  it  receives 
$62,500  for  the  first  year,  $87,500  for  the  second  and  $112,- 
500  for  the  third  year,  and  the  same  amount  for  each  of  the 
succeeding  two  years,  if  the  contract  is  renewed,  thus  making 
a  total  of  $487,500.  The  only  other  bid  received  by  the 
city  was  from  the  garbage  removal  company  in  charge  which 
desired  a  new  contract  at  $130,000  per  annum  from  the  city 
for  a  period  of  five  years,  or  a  total  of  $650,000,  so  that  if 
the  contract  with  the  second  party  proves  a  success  the  city 
actually  saves  $1,137,500  by  the  new  arrangement.  The  se- 
curity required  by  the  city  for  the  execution  of  the  contract 
is  $100,000. 

The  total  garbage  delivered  for  the  three  boroughs,  Man- 
hattan, the  Bronx  and  Brooklyn  was  341,739  tons  in  1910; 
317,992  tons  in  1911;   and  345,902  tons  in  1912. 

Garbage  contractors,  upon  receiving  the  garbage  at 
the  dumping  grounds,  sell  certain  portions  of  it  to  sub- 
contractors. Usually  the  tin  cans,  metal,  bottles,  textile 
materials,  such  as  clothing,  wool  and  mattresses,  and  the 
paper  are  sold  separately,  the  contractor  in  many  instances 
receiving  for  each  item  as  much  if  not  more  than  the  whole 
cost  of  the  removal.  He  usually  retains  for  himself  the 
most  valuable  portions,  such  as  kitchen  refuse,  vegetable, 
meat,  fat,  etc.,  from  which,  by  various  processes,  valuable 
by-products  such  as  fertilizer,  oil,  grease,  etc.,  are  obtained, 
being  worth  as  much  as  all  the  other  portions  of  the  refuse 
put  together. 

The  garbage  is  first  sorted  according  to  the  by-products 
to  be  manufactured.  The  grease-producing  portions  are 
boiled  in  digesters  and  the  oil  and  grease  removed;  the 
remainder,  called  tankage,  is  used,  after  being  dried  and 
ground,  for  fertilizer,  or  burned  as  fuel  in  the  boilers  of  the 
plant. 

The  grease  has  a  value  of  from  3  to  4  cents  a  pound  and 
is  sold  as  a  base  for  the  manufacture  of  cheap  grades  of 
pomatums,  cheap  perfumery  and  wagon  grease. 

Such  reduction  plants  should  be  located  in  isolated  dis- 


REFUSE  DISPOSAL  257 

tricts,  as  the  odor  produced  is  offensive  unless  the  plants 
are  exceptionally  well  designed  and  operated.  This  neces- 
sitates a  long,  expensive  haul  of  garbage,  which  is  a  draw- 
back to  the  method. 

Incineration  of  garbage  is  a  method  not  as  yet  intro- 
duced to  any  extent  in  the  United  States,  but  its  great 
advantages  are  being  recognized  by  city  officials  and  it  is 
making  great  progress. 

In  the  incineration  process,  garbage  alone  cannot  be 
burned  without  the  addition  of  coal  or  other  fuel,  unless  it 
is  mixed  with  ashes  or  other  combustible  materials  ordi- 
narily found  in  the  refuse. 

The  best  method  of  disposing  of  refuse  is  to  separate 
from  the  garbage  such  portions  as  will  produce  valuable 
by-products  and  burn  the  remainder  with  other  combustible 
material,   such  as  wood,  paper,  etc.,   separately. 

The  house  and  steam  ashes  should  be  used,  when  the 
garbage  is  collected,  as  a  means  of  cleaning  the  cans.  Gar- 
bage cans  will  quickly  foul  and,  therefore,  the  ash  can 
should  be  used  for  garbage  and  the  garbage  can  for  ashes  on 
alternate  days,  as  the  ashes  act  as  a  cleanser. 

The  house  and  steam  ashes  should  be  screened  at  the 
plant  and  burned  in  the  incinerator  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
ducing steam,  which  is  utilized  for  heating  purposes  and 
the  generation  of  electricity  for  lighting  and  power.  Such 
ashes  contain  high  heating  values  for  the  reason  that  the 
householder  and  small  power  plant  operators  do  not  know 
haw  to  utilize  the  coal  efficiently  and  waste  much  in  ashes. 
Large  cities,  particularly,  find  it  advantageous  to  install 
combined  refuse  destruction  and  electric  generating  plants 
to  dispose  of  the  ashes. 

In  a  city  of  half  a  million  population  for  which  the 
writer  was  recently  called  upon  to  design  a  refuse  incinerator 
plant,  the  annual  collections  of  ashes  amount  to  120,000 
tons,  or  335  tons  daily.  After  being  screened  and  the 
clinkers  removed,  80,000  tons  of  ashes  remain,  equal  to 
low  grade  coal,  having  an  actual  steaming  value  which,  when 
utilized  in  the  incinerator  plant,  suffices  for  the  operation 


258  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

of  generating  machinery  of  a  total  capacity  of  6,000  kilo- 
watts. A  local  electric  company  contemplates  purchasing 
this  power  in  order  to  avoid  competition,  and  it  will  prove 
especially  useful  since  the  incinerator  plant  is  in  opera- 
tion twenty-four  hours  a  day,  every  day  in  the  year. 

The  destructor  and  steam  raising  plant  will  consist,  in 
this  installation,  of  four  double  units,  each  capable  of  con- 
suming 84  tons  of  screened  ashes  per  day,  while  the  electric 
generating  plant  will  consist  of  three  2,000  kilowatt  turbo- 
generators. Provision  is  made  to  install  an  additional 
destructor  and  turbo-generator,  so  that  one  unit  may  be  kept 
in  reserve. 

A  number  of  refuse  destruction  plants  have  been  con- 
structed in  recent  years  throughout  the  United  States,  and 
as  the  system  is  one  which  has  been  in  use  abroad  for  many 
years,  city  officials  would  do  well  to  give  the  matter  their 
fullest  attention. 

Such  plants  are  well  adapted  to  municipal  operation, 
and  will  furnish  a  large  volume  of  electric  current  for  light- 
ing the  streets  and  for  power  uses. 

The  plants  occupy  but  a  small  land  area  and  can  be 
built  to-day  in  practically  any  part  of  the  city,  as  when 
properly  constructed  and  operated,  they  prove  entirely  un- 
objectionable.    They  are  also  a  decided  success,  financially. 

(F)  Water  Supply 

Purification  Systems;  Water  Works;  Water  Distribution; 
Water  Consumption 

Among  the  basic  and  fundamental  functions  of  a  city, 
there  is  none  of  greater  importance  than  that  of  water 
supply.  However  beautiful  and  attractive  a  city  may  be 
made,  if  it  runs  a  befouled  and  death-dealing  fluid  through 
its  water  mains,  it  is  but  a  whitened  sepulchre  and  a  mock- 
ery. Murder  by  wholesale  is  the  result,  and  a  list  of  victims 
which  would  fill  many  volumes  the  size  of  this  one,  could  be 
compiled  of  those  who  have  died  from  diseases  arising  out 
of  the  negligence  of  the  cities  in  which  they  were  compelled 


W.VnCHWOHKS    AT    PEKING,    CHINA 
Water  tower  with  KUmne  type  tank  of  185,000  gallons  capacity 


WATERWORKS    AT    LEUTZSCH.    NEAR    LEIPZIG 

80,000  gallnns  ca/mcilt/.  100  feel  hic/h 


WATER   SUPPLY  259 

to  live;  if  indeed  the  supplying  of  diluted  filth  instead  of 
water  may  be  termed  negligence. 

No  city  without  a  water-purifying  system,  unless  it  has 
a  source  of  naturally  pure  water,  can  in  reality  have  any 
claims  to  being  considered  a  civilized  place  of  residence. 
Millions  are  spent  on  pumping  plants,  yet  but  little  goes  for 
purification.  An  evidence  of  the  fear  in  which  the  water 
of  many  cities  is  held,  is  shown  by  the  numerous  and  highly 
prosperous  so-called  spring-water  companies.  The  amount 
of  money  spent  by  the  individual  members  of  the  public 
of  any  large  city  for  such  water,  would  undoubtedly  suffice 
for  a  purification  plant  for  the  whole  water  supply  of  the 
city. 

The  traveller  abroad  can  go  from  city  to  city  without 
fear  of  illness  as  a  result  of  drinking  water,  but  the  traveller 
in  America  is  in  great  danger,  especially  in  certain  parts  of 
the  country. 

The  essentials  of  a  pure  water  supply  consist  of  properly 
controlled  catchment  areas  to  collect  the  precipitation,  an 
impounding  storage  basin,  a  filtering  plant,  and  if  the 
supply  is  not  by  gravity  to  the  consumer,  a  pumping  station 
and,  finally,  the  distributing  system.  For  some  cities, 
artesian  wells  may  take  the  place  of  catchment  areas. 

The  water  at  no  time  should  be  subject  to  contamina- 
tion, especially  after  being  filtered.  Where  open  reservoirs 
are  used,  they  should  be  so  protected  that  no  possible 
access  can  be  had  to  them  except  by  the  officials  and  em- 
ployees. Provision  should  be  made  so  that  dead  bodies  will 
not  find  lodgment  in  them,  as  frequently  occurs  in  many 
cities. 

The  purification  of  water  is  accomplished  by  a  number 
of  different  processes,  adapted  to  the  different  kinds  of 
water  to  be  treated.  Such  processes  may  be  briefly  classi- 
fied as  follows: 

Mechanical  separation,  which  is  accomplished  either  by 
gravity  in  the  form  of  sedimentation  or  by  adhesion  and 
screening,  as  with  scrubbers,  filters  and  screens.  This 
method  is  the  one  most  widely  used. 


260  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Sand  filtration,  as  compared  with  the  so-called  mechanical 
filtration,  is  a  natural  gravity  filtration  method,  slower  in 
action  and  subject  to  certain  limitations;  that  is,  a  greater 
area  for  purification  is  necessary,  and  it  is  not  successful  in 
clearing  turbid  river  waters  of  the  finely  divided  clay  con- 
tents. It  is,  however,  the  second  most  widely  used  method 
in  the  United  States  and  is  in  Europe  proportionately  more 
widely  used. 

Chemical  purification,  necessary  with  water  of  a  certain 
character,  accompanied  by  the  introduction  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  etc.,  to  soften  the  water,  and  for  the  removal  of 
iron  and  objectionable  acids. 

Biological  processes,  accomplished  by  oxidation  of  or- 
ganic matter  by  its  use  as  food  for  organisms,  which  effect 
its  destruction,  and  by  the  death  of  the  objectionable 
organisms  as  the  result  of  unfavorable  conditions  artificially 
produced,  such  as  the  absence  of  food  and  presence  of 
antagonistic  organisms,  the  remains  then  being  removed  by 
the  purification  process. 

Aeration  by  evaporation  of  gases  held  in  solution,  the 
cause  of  objectionable  tastes  and  odors;  evaporation  of 
carbonic  acid,  a  food  supply  for  some  kinds  of  growths; 
and  the  supplying  of  oxygen  necessary  for  certain  chemical 
purifications  and  especially  necessary  to  support  growths  of 
water  purifying  organisms.  Aeration  is  accomplished  by 
exposing  the  water  in  thin  sheets  to  the  air,  as  in  falling 
over  dams  or  overflows,  and  by  pumping  it  up  into  the  air 
out  of  a  pipe,  as  in  the  form  of  a  low  or  bubbling  geyser. 

American  cities  for  the  most  part  draw  their  water 
supply  from  rivers  which  carry  a  large  proportion  of  silt 
and  clay.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  remove  such  impuri- 
ties, which  are  of  a  purely  inorganic  kind,  as  well  as  to  purify 
the  water  of  bacteria  and  other  organic  growth.  Various 
methods  and  combinations  of  methods  are  employed  for 
the  purpose.  In  some  plants  the  process  consists  of  pre- 
filtration,  coagulation  and  final  sandbed  filtration;  in  others, 
coagulation  and  mechanical  filtration;  while  in  others  sterili- 
zation is  employed  in  addition  to  the  other  methods. 


WATER   SUPPLY  261 

In  Wilmington,  Albany,  Philadelphia,  Montreal,  Steelton 
and  other  places  preliminary  filters  are  employed,  after  which 
sedimentation  is  allowed  to  take  place,  with  a  final  sandbed 
filtration.  This  process  in  time  of  heavy  floods  does  not 
work  well,  as  the  suspended  matter  in  the  water  cannot  be 
adequately  dealt  with. 

Coagulants  such  as  sulphate  of  alumina,  or  sulphate  of 
iron  in  connection  with  lime,  effect  a  coagulation  of  the 
particles  to  a  point  of  sufficient  individual  bulk  to  be  re- 
movable by  the  sandbed  filtration.  This  method  is  improved 
by  being  used  in  connection  with  the  sterilization  process, 
as  in  the  application  of  hypochlorite  of  lime. 

The  most  efiTicient  method  of  dealing  with  American 
river  waters  with  a  high  degree  of  turbidity  is  that  followed 
by  such  plants  as  those  at  Louisville,  Harrisburg,  New 
Orleans,  Columbus,  Toledo,  Cincinnati,  Little  Falls,  New 
Milford  and  several  hundred  smaller  places,  in  which  the 
water  is  first  subjected  to  coagulation  and  then  mechan- 
ically filtered  by  being  forced  through  filtering  mediums 
under  pressure,  the  filtering  medium  when  clogged  being 
cleaned  by  reversed  currents. 

The  coagulants  have  in  addition  the  effect  of  removing 
discolorants,  tastes  and  odors,  and  they  are  especially  effec- 
tive in  these  respects  when  used  in  combination  with  aera- 
tion. It  is,  of  course,  necessary  to  have  the  operation  of 
such  plants  in  the  hands  of  competent  and  experienced 
engineers,  and  each  installation  must  be  treated  on  its  own 
merits,  as  the  local  conditions  vary  so  greatly. 

Another  process  coming  rapidly  into  vogue,  is  the  ozone 
treatment.  It  is  an  electrical  treatment  of  the  water,  which 
produces  the  effect  of  aeration  in  a  much  more  rapid  manner 
than  by  oxygen.  It  is  much  employed  on  the  continent, 
and  an  especially  notable  plant  has  recently  been  installed 
in  St.  Petersburg,  where  the  capacity  is  50,000  cubic  meters 
per  24-hour  day,  or  13,200,000  gallons. 

The  water  of  St.  Petersburg  is  taken  from  the  river 
Neva,  which  not  only  has  a  very  decided  brownish  yellow 
color,  but  which  is  also  heavily  charged  with  the  germs  of 


262  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

typhoid  and  cholera.  It  has  undoubtedly  been  the  cause 
of  epidemics  in  the  past.  The  plant  consists  of  coagulating 
and  filter  basins,  electric  generating  ozone  producers  and 
ozone  sterilizing  apparatus.  The  coagulating  basins  are 
designed  of  such  capacity  that  the  water  remains  in  them 
for  a  period  of  two  hours,  after  receiving  the  required 
amount  of  sulphate  of  alumina.  From  this  basin  the  water 
passes  to  the  mechanical  filters  of  which  there  are  38  in 
number,  after  which  it  passes  to  a  collecting  conduit  of 
reinforced  concrete,  from  which  it  goes  to  the  ozone  treat- 
ment plant. 

In  the  ozone  plant  is  apparatus  designed  to  bring  the 
ozone  into  intimate  contact  with  the  water.  As  is  well 
known,  ozone  is  a  form  of  what  may  be  termed  intensified 
oxygen,  and  is  ordinarily  produced  in  the  air  by  flashes  of 
lightning.  In  the  ozone  producers,  minute  electrical  dis- 
charges, small  flashes  of  lightning  in  fact,  produce  the  ozone 
artificially,  and  the  air  heavily  charged  with  ozone  thus 
produced  is  mingled  with  the  water,  oxygenizing  the  im- 
pure matter,  which  is  broken  up  into  gases  and  disorgan- 
ized matter,  the  latter  as  harmless  as  sand  and  the  gases 
escaping  into  the  air,  leaving  the  water  entirely  pure.  The 
air  charged  with  the  ozone  is  carried  into  the  water-mixing 
columns,  which  are  fed  by  the  coflecting  conduit.  There 
are  five  such  ozone  sterilizing  units,  each  having  a  capacity 
of  3,000  gallons  per  hour. 

Owing  to  the  great  interest  excited  by  this  plant,  and 
to  the  fact  that  the  waters  of  the  Neva  are  of  such  an  un- 
favorable character,  constant  tests  are  made  of  the  results. 
The  plant  has  been  in  operation  for  a  year  and  is  highly 
successful,  indeed  beyond  anything  that  could  be  expected 
of  a  mechanical  filter  plant. 

Cities  having  gravity  feed  water  supply  are  more  for- 
tunate than  others  which  must  go  to  the  expense  of  pump- 
ing stations  and  water  towers  or  storage  reservoirs  to  create 
the  necessary  head  for  the  distributing  system. 

In  cities  in  which  there  is  a  large  supply  of  water  at  a 
low  head,  a  water  power  plant  may  be  erected  utilizing  the 


WATER  SUPPLY  263 

water  for  generating  electricity  to  drive  the  pumps  of  tiie 
pumping  station,  thus  using  the  large  volume  of  water  at 
the  low  head  to  elevate  a  smaller  volume  to  a  higher  head. 

The  combined  electric  generating  and  pumping  station 
may  be  so  dimensioned  that  during  part  of  the  24  hours, 
current  may  be  used  for  light  and  power  purposes,  while 
during  the  remainder  of  the  time,  when  this  demand  has 
fallen  oiT,  the  electric  pumps  may  be  operated,  thus  utilizing 
the  equipment  of  the  station  to  the  fullest  degree. 

In  some  cities,  even,  the  water  power  plant  may  be  so 
favorably  located  that  after  the  water  passes  through  the 
turbines,  generating  electric  power,  it  may  still  possess 
sufficient  head  to  pass  through  the  purifying  system  and  dis- 
tributing mains  by  gravity.  This  would  be  an  ideal  con- 
dition, but  it  is  one  seldom  realized,  though  its  possibility 
is  too  often  overlooked  by  engineers.  Such  a  plant  may 
be  economically  developed,  even  at  some  distance  from  the 
city.  In  laying  it  out,  however,  only  the  most  experienced 
engineers  should  be  retained,  as  a  plant  not  properly  de- 
signed may  prove  uneconomical.  The  interest  on  the 
money  invested  may  amount  to  more  than  the  value  of 
the  electric  current  produced. 

The  distributing  mains  throughout  the  city  should  be 
so  laid  out  that  accidents  in  any  section  may  be  confined  to 
a  small  area.  Provision  should  be  made  so  that  an  affected 
section  may  be  readily  cut  out  by  by-passing. 

In  the  last  decade,  the  use  of  steel  pipes  has  come  into 
vogue  abroad  for  city  water  mains,  and  cast-iron  pipes  have 
been  replaced  by  steel  pipes.  Steel  pipes  are  lap-welded 
by  the  autogenous  process,  and  are  not  rivetted.  They 
are  very  much  lighter  in  weight,  are  made  in  greater  lengths 
than  cast-iron  pipes,  are  much  more  easily  laid  and  have  the 
great  advantage  of  not  being  liable  to  breakage  when  in 
place  as  is  so  often  the  case  with  cast-iron  pipes,  and  thus 
not  only  flooding  the  neighborhood,  causing  damage  and 
inconvenience,  but  also  exposing  large  sections  of  the  city 
to  fire  risk. 

Steel  pipes,   further,   are   not  liable  to   leakage,   as  the 


264  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

settlement  of  earth  has  Httle  effect  on  them,  while  with 
cast-iron  pipes,  it  produces  a  great  volume  of  leakage  which 
remains  undiscovered. 

There  is  great  leakage  in  American  city  water  systems, 
and  the  authorities  are  usually  unable  to  tell  what  becomes 
of  the  water.  The  quantity  of  water  consumed  in  certain 
of  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States  and  Europe  is  stated 
as  follows : 

Pittsburgh,  220  gallons  per  capita  per  day;   Buffalo,  310 
Philadelphia,    205;     Chicago,    225;     Salt    Lake    City,    310 
Paris,    65;     Hamburg,    44;     London,    39;     Liverpool,    38 
Amsterdam,  37;    Copenhagen,  27;  Dresden,  26,  and  Berlin, 
22. 

European  cities,  although  sprinkling  and  washing  the 
streets  and  using  water  as  freely  for  other  purposes,  have 
a  much  lower  consumption,  owing  no  doubt  to  prevention 
of  leakage,  and  also,  since  the  water  is  metered,  to  preven- 
tion of  unnecessary  waste.  The  enormous  cost  to  the 
American  cities  of  the  water  works  required  is  a  serious 
burden  on  the  taxpayers,  and  measures  should  be  taken 
to  stop  the  waste,  which  may  be  partially  accomplished  by 
remedying  faults  of  construction  and  operation,  and  as  far 
as  the  consumer  goes  by  metering,  so  that  he  pays  for 
what  he  consumes.  This  proves  the  easiest,  most  equitable 
and  most  effective  system. 

The  Department  of  Water  Supply,  Gas  and  Electricity 
of  New  York  has  issued  a  bulletin  with  figures  and  tables 
that  show  a  reduction  of  60,000,000  gallons  in  the  daily 
consumption  of  water  in  Manhattan  and  Bronx  as  a  result 
of  the  campaign  against  water  waste  during  the  protracted 
droughts  of  1910  and  1911.  The  economy  was  accomplished 
by  a  house-to  house  inspection  in  quest  of  the  small  and 
usually  ignored  leak,  and  by  spreading  instructive  literature 
on  the  subject  of  water  waste. 

The  work  of  the  water  waste  division  of  the  Bureau  of 
Water  Supply,  it  is  now  announced,  has  resulted  in  a  direct 
saving,  since  it  was  started  in  1910,  of  15,000,000,000  gallons 
of   water,    which,   at   meter   rates,    would    represent   about 


FOUNTAIN    PAOLINA,    ROME 


TERMINAL    FOUNTAIN    TREVI,    ROME 

Splendid  examples  of  classic  architectural  embellishment,   symbolizing 
cily  water  supply 


o   .^ 

a:  E 

►J     c 


WATER  SUPPLY  265 

$2,300,000,  while  the  cost  of  the  work  amounted   to  only 
$90,000. 

The  water  supply  system  of  a  city  should  be  utilized  in 
the  design  of  the  city  to  produce  aesthetic  effects,  being  pe- 
culiarly well  adapted  for  such  purposes. 

In  many  cities  water  towers  of  a  highly  ornamental 
character  may  be  erected,  constructed  of  reinforced  concrete, 
steel  or  masonry.  Attractive  towers  of  this  kind  should  be 
erected,  whenever  possible,  instead  of  the  unsightly  steel 
towers  or  standpipes  so  commonly  put  up. 

Cities  which  draw  their  supply  of  water  from  distant 
watersheds  may  find  it  of  advantage  to  conduct  it  through 
an  aqueduct  which,  when  led  across  valleys,  ofTers  great 
opportunities  for  effective  architectural  treatment.  A  sur- 
plus of  water  may  be  drawn  from  the  watershed  to  be  used 
at  some  selected  point,  forming  an  artificial  cascade  and 
waterfalls,  while  a  highway  may  be  built  on  the  aqueduct. 
Where  water  is  supplied  from  sources  requiring  pumping 
stations,  these  should  be  of  well-designed  monumental  char- 
acter. In  the  city  itself,  as  an  architectural  symbol  of  the 
water  supply  system,  there  should  be  erected  monumental 
terminal  fountains.  These  should  be  either  in  the  form  of 
geysers  or  cascades,  and  they  are  susceptible  of  a  high  degree 
of  architectural  ornamentation.  Such  fountains  are  ex- 
tremely popular  in  European  cities  and  form  most  interesting 
and  efTective  features  in  the  city  planning. 

In  Rome  the  terminal  fountains  of  Aqua-Paola  and  the 
Fontana  Trevi,  and  in  Marseilles  the  fountain  of  the  Palais 
Long  Champ,  are  excellent  examples;  while  German  cities 
abound  with  similar  works  in  modern  style,  for  example,  the 
Wittelsbach  Fountain  at  Munich,  which  consists  of  a  basin 
82  feet  in  length  and  42  feet  in  width,  from  which  rises  a 
pedestal  bearing  four  masks,  symbolical  of  the  different 
"temperaments"  of  water.  On  the  top  of  this  is  a  basin  18 
feet  in  diameter,  and  above  this  a  smaller  basin  from  which 
the  water  issues.  On  the  right  and  left  of  the  lower  basin 
are  two  colossal  groups  in  marble,  10  feet  high  and  13  feet 
wide;  a  female  figure  upon  a  water-bull  and  a  male  figure 


266  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

upon  a  water-horse  symbolizing  respectively  the  fertilizing 
and  destructive  power  of  water. 

A  well-known  monumental  water  tower  is  that  at  Mann- 
heim, Germany,  in  which  the  tower  is  utilized  as  an  orna- 
mental structure  in  the  center  of  the  city,  surrounded  by 
parking  and  fountains. 

While  city  water  supply  systems  are  strictly  engineering 
propositions,  it  will  be  seen  that  opportunity  is  afforded  for 
utilizing  not  only  the  art  of  the  architect  but  also  that  of 
the  sculptor  in  symbolizing  the  city's  possessions  and  the 
means  of  supplying  its  citizens  with  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant of  all  the  necessities  of  life  —  water.  The  displaying 
of  the  city's  water  in  this  way  in  the  most  attractive  manner 
serves  not  only  as  an  embellishment  of  the  city,  but  has  a 
most  important  hygienic  effect,  since  if  the  displayed  water 
is  seen  thus  publicly  to  be  muddy  and  impure  it  will  arouse 
public  opinion  to  the  point  of  action,  and  insure  the  ob- 
taining of  a  supply  of  pure  water  which  the  city  will  not  be 
ashamed  to  show  to  its  citizens  and  visitors. 

The  building  of  a  monumental  fountain  in  New  York,  for 
example,  at  a  cost  of  $160,000  would  provide  the  city  with 
an  attractive  structure,  perhaps  the  greatest  of  its  kind  in 
the  world,  yet  its  cost  would  be  but  A  of  1  per  cent  of 
that  of  the  aqueduct  system  which  the  city  is  now  con- 
structing at  a  cost  of  $160,000,000. 

(G)   Gas  Supply 

Coal  Gas;  Water  Gas;  By-Produds;  Gas  Pressure; 
Gas  Distribution 

Gas,  one  of  the  oldest  of  modern  street  lighting  systems, 
although  hard  pressed  by  the  advance  of  electricity,  has 
reached  a  point  beyond  which  it  is  not  likely  to  be  driven. 
This  is  principally  due  to  the  fact  that  great  inventions 
have  been  made,  producing  a  marked  improvement  in  the 
brilliancy  of  gas  lighting,  and  to  the  development  of  the  use 
of  gas  for  heating  purposes. 

As  in  the  case  of  steam  power  plants,  gas  plants  should 


GAS   SUPPLY  267 

be  located  on  a  water  front,  and  should  also  have  railroad 
connections,  in  order  to  be  accessible  to  supplies  of  coal. 

Owing  to  the  great  size  of  the  holders,  gas  plants  have 
never  been  made  acceptable  in  an  architectural  sense,  and 
they  should  therefore  be  located  in  the  outskirts  of  the  city, 
or  in  factory  districts  where  their  ugliness  will  not  be  so 
noticeable.  If  this  is  not  feasible,  they  should  be  painted  a 
silver  slate  color  instead  of  the  usual  red,  to  render  them  less 
conspicuous. 

The  general  equipment  of  the  generating  plant  consists  of 
retorts,  mechanical  handling  apparatus  for  coal,  the  machin- 
ery for  charging  retorts,  apparatus  for  obtaining  the  by- 
products, such  as  tar,  ammonia,  oxide,  sulphate,  lime,  and 
cyanogen;  and  the  auxiliary  machinery  such  as  scrubbers, 
purifiers,  etc.,  all  of  which  should  be  well  arranged  and 
grouped  in  a  compact  manner  in  order  that  the  plant  may 
be  operated  in  an  efficient  and  economical  way. 

The  demand  to-day  is  for  a  gas  having  as  high  a  calorific 
or  heating  value  as  possible,  as  well  as  a  high  illuminating 
value,  where  a  few  years  ago  the  demand  was  principally  for 
illuminating  power.  This  change  has  been  brought  about  by 
the  increased  use  of  gas  for  cooking  and  in  the  arts.  Coal 
gas  should  have  a  heating  value  of  not  less  than  550  British 
Thermal  Units  per  cubic  foot,  while  water  gas  is  usually 
higher.  In  many  towns  a  combination  of  coal  gas  and 
water  gas  is  used.  For  instance,  in  New  York,  where  this 
plan  is  adopted,  recent  tests  made  showed  an  average  of 
756.2  British  Thermal  Units  and  an  average  illuminating 
power  of  28.8  candle-power. 

Water  gas  is  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  steam 
in  contact  with  incandescent  carbon.  The  process  consists 
in  alternate  "blows"  with  air  to  heat  the  fuel,  and  "runs" 
with  steam,  which  is  decomposed  by  the  incandescent  fuel, 
continuing  to  form  water  gas  until  the  temperature  becomes 
too  low,  necessitating  another  period  of  heating. 

In  the  carburetted  water  gas  process,  the  fuel  in  the 
generator  is  burned  by  the  air  blast  only  to  a  sufficient  de- 
gree of  heat  to  form  principally  carbon  monoxide.     Another 


268  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

process  much  in  vogue  in  Europe  produces  about  twice  as 
much  water  gas  for  the  same  amount  of  fuel.  In  this 
process  the  volume  of  air  during  the  blows  is  so  propor- 
tioned to  the  bed  of  fuel,  and  the  apparatus  is  so  designed, 
that  instead  of  carbon  monoxide,  carbon  dioxide  is  formed, 
developing  three  times  the  heat  from  the  fuel  that  is  de- 
veloped when  it  is  burned  only  to  carbon  monoxide.  In 
this  process,  coke  is  therefore  converted  into  water  gas  with 
a  maximum  of  economy,  transferring  to  the  gas  about  70 
per  cent  of  the  heating  value  of  the  fuel. 

It  is  the  practice  abroad  to  use  seamless  welded  steel 
tubing  for  the  distributing  mains,  instead  of  cast-iron  pipe. 
The  steel  pipes  have  for  gas  mains  the  advantages  similar  to 
the  use  of  steel  pipes  for  water  mains,  already  pointed  out. 
They  are  lighter  in  weight,  easier  to  handle,  have  fewer 
joints,  are  not  subject  to  breakage  and  when  laid  are  free 
from  leakage,  besides  lasting  longer. 

What  has  been  said  about  the  general  arrangement  of 
water  mains  and  by-passing  is  equally  applicable  to  gas 
mains,  in  order  to  prevent  leakage  and  inconvenience. 
Where  gas  pipes  enter  buildings,  there  should  be  accessible 
cut-off  valves,  so  that  in  case  of  fire,  the  fire  department 
may  cut  oil  the  supply  of  gas  for  that  particular  building. 

Owing  to  the  numerous  improvements  the  intensity  of 
gas  illumination  to-day  runs  to  5,000  candle-power  and  over 
in  single  burners. 

The  gas  is  also  distributed  under  much  higher  pressure 
than  formerly.  The  city  of  Berlin  has  systems  in  operation 
as  high  as  17J^  pounds  per  square  inch.  This  pressure  is 
obtained  by  the  use  of  turbo-driven  turbo  blowers. 

In  New  York  City,  a  recent  order  of  the  Public  Service 
Commission  increases  the  pressure  at  the  point  of  use  bj'' 
the  consumer  from  one  and  one  half  inches  water  column  to 
two  inches  water  column.  One  inch  water  column  equals 
.58  ounce,  one  and  one-half  inch  water  column  equals  .82 
ounce  and  two  inches  water  column  equals  1.16  ounces 
pressure.  The  Commission's  order  also  requires  that  a  dif- 
ference of  not  more  than  f  inches  water  column  shall  exist 


ELECTRICITY   SUPPLY  269 

in  the  variations  of  pressure  from  day  to  day.  Special 
requirements  are  made  as  to  momentary  pulsations  and  varia- 
tions of  pressure,  which  are  to  be  obviated  by  the  use  of 
regulating  apparatus.  Such  variations  are  usually  caused  by 
the  use  of  gas  by  gas  engines,  of  the  hit  and  miss  type, 
which  do  not  take  a  regular  supply  of  gas  from  the  mains. 
The  effect  of  the  Commission's  order  will  be  to  improve  the 
brilliancy  of  the  lighting  and  give  greater  and  more  regular 
heat  at  the  burners.  The  orders  will  require  improvements 
to  be  made  in  the  gas  mains  and  will  require  three  years  to 
effect. 

Another  practice  employed  abroad  is  to  light  whole 
sections  of  the  city  simultaneously.  This  is  accomplished  by 
an  automatic  lighter  for  each  lamp  post,  which  is  caused  to 
operate  by  slight  changes  in  the  pressure.  These  changes 
are  in  the  mains  and  are  controlled  from  a  central  point. 
The  lights  are  extinguished  simultaneously  by  the  same 
method. 

(H)   Electricity  Supply 

Steam-  and  Hydro-Electric  Plants;  Internal  Combustion  En- 
gine and  Combination  Plants;  Size  of  Machinery;  Elec- 
tric Current  Distribution;    Central  Station  Service 

Municipal  ownership  of  public  utilities  is  becoming  more 
and  more  general  in  the  United  States,  and  a  large  number 
of  cities  already  have  their  own  power  plants,  which  is,  of 
course,  one  of  the  most  important  members  of  a  group  of 
public  utilities. 

Such  plants  are  used  for  furnishing  electric  current  for 
city  traction,  street  and  municipal  building  lighting  and 
power  purposes,  while  in  the  cases  of  many  cities,  current 
is  sold  to  private  consumers. 

Municipal  power  plants  should  be  designed  to  supply  the 
current  required  under  existing  conditions,  and  to  be  capable 
of  ready  extension  when  made  necessary  by  subsequent 
demands  for  additional  current,  but  at  the  same  time,  in 
order  to  insure  financially  successful  results,  great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  make  the    plant  larger  than  neces- 


270  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

sary,  since  interest  and  sinking  fund  charges  on  idle  equip- 
ment or  on  too  large  an  equipment  will  make  the  city's 
current  unduly  expensive. 

In  the  selection  of  the  equipment,  also,  the  greatest 
judgment  is  requisite,  since  the  most  expensive  equipment  is 
by  no  means  necessarily  productive  of  the  most  efficient 
results. 

In  the  designing  of  a  plant,  advantage  must  be  taken  of 
the  latest  advances  in  engineering,  and  especially  so  in  order 
to  obtain  the  greatest  degree  of  economy  in  operation. 

Electric  current  for  municipal  purposes  is  generated 
chiefly  by  steam,  oil,  gas  or  water  power.  Of  the  four 
methods,  steam  is  the  most  widely  in  use,  but  local  condi- 
tions are  the  determining  factor  in  the  selection  of  the  best 
source.  A  city,  for  example,  in  which  coal  is  expensive  and 
in  which  a  water  power  is  at  hand,  will,  of  course,  choose  a 
water  power  plant,  unless  the  overhead  charges  will  out- 
weigh the  advantages  of  the  water  power. 

If  a  steam  generating  plant  is  selected,  it  should  be 
located  on  a  water  front,  in  order  to  handle  coal  and  ashes 
on  barges,  and  to  have  at  hand  an  ample  supply  of  water  for 
condensation.  When  the  water  of  the  stream  is  suitable  for 
boiler  feed  purposes  it  may  be  used,  but  otherwise  water 
for  the  purpose  should  be  taken  from  the  city  mains,  or 
from  wells. 

The  lot  chosen  for  the  plant  must  be  large  enough  to 
provide  for  future  extensions,  and  there  should  also  be 
ample  space  for  coal  storage,  to  guard  against  interruption 
of  supply,  due  to  strikes  on  the  water,  railroads  or  at  the 
mines. 

Coal  should  be  purchased  on  the  basis  of  its  heating 
value,  and  it  should  be  weighed  when  delivered.  In  order 
to  cut  down  the  cost  of  labor  to  the  minimum,  the  unloading 
should  be  done  by  automatic  machinery. 

The  arrangement  of  the  power  plant  should  be  adapted 
to  the  machinery  to  be  installed,  and  to  the  size  of  the  plant. 
For  example,  a  plant  of  15,000  kilowatt  capacity  should  be 
made  up  from  four  to  five  prime  movers,  and  each  prime 


ELECTRICITY   SUPPLY  271 

mover  should  have  its  own  boilers  and  auxiliary  machinery, 
so  that  the  whole  plant  will  be  divided  on  the  unit  system. 

For  example,  in  the  power  house  of  the  New  York 
Subway  system,  with  the  entire  design  and  construction  of 
which  the  writer  was  associated,  the  equipment  is  divided 
into  ten  units.  Each  unit  consists  of  six  boilers,  two  econo- 
mizers, one  5,000  kilowatt  main  high  pressure  reciprocating 
engine,  one  5,000  kilowatt  low  pressure  turbine,  receiving  the 
exhaust  steam  from  the  reciprocating  engine,  one  condenser, 
one  boiler  feed  pump,  one  circulating  pump  and  one  air 
pump. 

The  boilers  of  each  two  units  possess  in  common  one 
smoke  stack,  and  the  piping  system  is  so  arranged  that  any 
set  of  boilers  can  feed  any  main  prime  mover. 

In  another  plant,  designed  by  the  writer  for  the  Potomac 
Electric  Light  and  Power  Company,  Washington,  D.  C, 
which  has  a  capacity  of  25,000  kilowatts,  while  the  boilers 
are  arranged  at  right  angles  to  the  generating  room,  the  unit 
system  is  taken  advantage  of  throughout  the  plant.  This 
plant  is  considered  the  most  economically  operated  plant  in 
the  United  States,  and  it  embodies  a  number  of  European 
features  of  value. 

The  unit  system  renders  the  first  cost  lower,  and  insures 
a  more  flexible  and  economical  operation.  The  steam  piping 
should  always  be  arranged  so  that  any  set  of  boilers  may 
be  used  to  feed  any  of  the  prime  movers. 

As  the  steam  piping  is  regarded  as  the  arterial  system  of 
the  plant,  it  should  be  laid  out  as  simply  but  as  flexibly  as 
possible,  in  order  to  avoid  delay  in  by-passing  when  sections 
have  to  be  cut  out. 

This  is  equally  true  of  the  bus  bar  system  in  the  switch- 
ing room,  which  receives  the  electric  current  from  the  genera- 
tors. The  voltage  adopted  for  the  generators  depends  on 
the  location  of  the  plant.  If  it  is  located  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  current  consumption,  low  voltage,  direct  current  may 
be  chosen,  but  if  located  at  some  distance  from  the  point  of 
consumption,  high  voltage,  alternating  current  must  be 
selected. 


272  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

The  current,  if  used  for  lighting  only,  should  be  con- 
verted from  alternating  into  direct,  and  while  this  is  a  some- 
what more  expensive  system,  it  gives  steadier  light  than  if 
such  conversion  is  not  made.  If  the  current  is  used  simul- 
taneously for  local  and  suburban  railway  systems,  in  order 
to  avoid  the  installation  of  different  kinds  of  apparatus, 
alternating  current  is  also  used  for  lighting,  but  in  such  case, 
the  cycle  chosen  should  be  not  less  than  25  per  second,  in 
order  that  fluctuations  of  the  light  may  be  avoided.  While 
15  cycles  per  second  is  considered  desirable  for  traction, 
and  60  cycles  for  lighting,  yet  when  the  current  is  needed 
for  both  purposes,  a  medium  number  should  be  chosen. 
Some  cities  have  a  cycle  frequency  of  32 J^  and  42. 

Within  the  last  few  years  many  plants  are  utilizing  the 
exhaust  steam  from  the  engines  for  steam-heating  of  build- 
ings in  entire  districts  in  winter,  and  for  ice  making  in 
summer,  the  ice  being  sold  to  the  public  at  a  lower  price 
than  it  could  be  sold  by  other  producers.  Thus  the  plant 
is  made  much  more  profitable. 

It  will  be  seen  that  no  little  technical  experience  is  re- 
quired in  selecting  the  best  form  of  equipment  for  any 
particular  installation,  owing  to  the  various  conditions  to  ])e 
met. 

Many  cities  are  fortunately  in  position  to  take  advantage 
of  water  powers,  but  in  order  to  successfully  utilize  such 
powers,  it  is  necessary  to  give  the  subject  an  exhaustive 
preliminary  study  and  investigation  to  ascertain  particularly 
the  volume  of  water  which  may  be  available  during  the 
whole  year.  Government  reports,  though  reaching  back 
long  enough,  often  some  10  or  15  years,  must  not  be 
accepted  without  corroboration,  nor  should  the  hearsay 
evidence  of  local  residents  be  blindly  accepted,  as  many 
water  power  installations  have  proven  failures  through  in- 
sufficient water  supply,  while  others  have  been  wrecked  by 
floods  when  erected  without  sufficient  reliable  data  at  hand 
as  to  what  was  to  be  expected. 

Thorough  investigation  should  also  be  made  as  regards 
the  financial  aspect  of  the  development.     In  some  plants,  the 


ELECTRICITY   SUPPLY  273 

harnessing  of  the  water  involves  so  great  an  investment, 
that  the  interest  and  sinking  fund  charges  are  greater  than 
the  value  of  the  current  generated. 

The  fact  that  the  location  of  the  water  power  site  may 
be  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  city  is  of  much  less 
importance  than  would  appear  to  the  lay  observer.  A  site 
50  miles  or  more  away  may  be  readily  utilized,  and  in  fact, 
so  great  have  been  the  advances  in  engineering  science,  that 
power  is  to-day  economically  transmitted  200  miles  or 
more. 

Cities  within  practicable  distances  of  such  power  sites 
should  not  neglect  to  obtain  the  rights  to  them,  whether 
contemplating  immediate  use  or  not.  The  State  of  New 
York  has  under  consideration  the  utilization  of  the  various 
water  powers  throughout  the  state,  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  undertaken  by  the  Canadian  Government  through  the 
organization  of  the  Hydro  Electric  Power  Commission  of 
Ontario,  which  has  charge  of  the  long  distance  transmission 
distributing  system  of  Niagara  power  in  the  Province  of 
Ontario. 

The  writer  was  retained  to  make  a  report  on  the  entire 
Canadian  governmental  undertaking,  the  results  of  which 
cannot  here  be  quoted  as  the  report  is  too  lengthy  for  the 
purpose.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  the  practicability 
of  high  voltage  long  distance  transmission  is  amply  demon- 
strated and  that  cities  should  not  hesitate  to  take  advantage 
of  natural  resources,  even  when  located  at  considerable 
distances,  provided  other  features  are  such  as  to  make  the 
projects  advisable. 

In  constructing  water  power  plants,  the  determination 
of  the  type  of  turbine  is  of  great  importance,  in  order  to 
obtain  the  highest  degree  of  efTiciency.  Drawing  the  line, 
for  example,  between  a  low  head  and  a  medium  head,  or  a 
medium  head  and  a  high  head  turbine,  may  often  mean  from 
5  to  10  per  cent  diiference  in  efficiency  of  the  plant.  As  a 
general  rule,  a  low  head  turbine  is  adapted  to  utilize  large 
quantities  of  water  falling  but  a  short  distance,  while  a  high 
head  turbine  will  produce  an  equivalent  power  with  much 


274  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

less  water,  if  it  falls  from  a  greater  height.  The  former  will 
be  a  low  speed  turbine  and  the  latter  a  high  speed  machine. 
Just  what  type  to  select  for  water  of  a  given  head  in  a  given 
volume  is  one  of  the  many  questions  which  the  engineer 
must  decide  and  one  upon  which  may  depend  the  whole 
success  of  the  undertaking. 

The  number  of  penstocks  used  for  the  entire  plant  de- 
pends much  on  the  general  arrangement  of  the  plant,  its 
situation  with  reference  to  the  collecting  basin  and  the  type 
of  machinery  selected.  It  is  good  practice,  when  the  plant 
is  large,  to  install  several  parallel  penstocks,  so  that  in  case 
of  breakdown  of  one,  the  others  will  supply  water  to  the 
turbine  generator  sets. 

In  designing  and  constructing  the  dam,  the  utmost  en- 
gineering skill  is  requisite,  and  the  penalty  of  employing 
inexperienced  engineers  has  been  shown  by  the  numerous 
breakages  of  dams  in  the  recent  past. 

What  has  been  said  in  reference  to  the  size  of  the  prime 
movers,  in  order  to  carry  economically  light  and  heavy  loads, 
and  the  flexibility  of  the  switch  gear,  the  voltage  and  fre- 
quency of  the  generator,  in  steam  power  plants,  is  all  equally 
true  for  hydro-electric  plants.  It  is  beyond  the  scope  of  the 
present  work,  of  course,  to  go  into  the  detail  construction 
of  such  plants,  particularly  as  the  subject  has  been  fully 
covered  in  the  author's  books,  "Steam  Electric  Power  Plants" 
and  " Hydro-Electric  Developments  and  Engineering,"  which 
deal  with  the  theory  and  practical  side  of  the  latest  American 
and  European  practice,  and  which  embody  the  results  of  his 
experience  in  the  design  and  construction  of  plants  aggregat- 
ing some  300,000  horse-power. 

In  addition  to  steam  and  water  power  plants,  the  in- 
ternal combustion  engine,  whether  of  gas  or  oil,  is  made  use 
of.  Fuel  in  the  form  of  oil,  or  gas  from  the  city  mains, 
natural  gas,  producer  gas  or  the  waste  from  coke  ovens  or 
blast  furnaces  may  be  utilized. 

The  oil  engines  have  reached  a  state  of  such  perfection 
that  from  10  to  15  horse-power  per  hour  can  be  developed 
from  one  gallon  of  crude  oil  and  oil  of  this  character  can  be 


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ELECTRIC   STREET  RAILWAYS  275 

had  at  from  2  to  6  cents  per  gallon,  depending  on  the  quan- 
tity purchased. 

The  first  cost  of  an  oil  engine  plant  is  comparatively  low 
for  the  simple  reason  that  there  are  no  boilers,  very  few 
pipes,  and  but  a  small  building,  while  no  large  machinery  is 
necessary  for  handling  fuel,  one  or  two  tanks  for  storage  of 
oil  alone  being  required. 

The  operation  of  such  a  plant  is  simple.  It  can  be 
started  on  five  minutes'  notice,  and  after  the  power  is  shut  off 
the  running  charges  cease.  Due  to  these  advantages,  the  oil 
engines  are  particularly  adapted  for  supplementary  installa- 
tion in  steam  and  water  power  plants,  to  carry  peak  loads, 
which  usually  come  twice  a  day  and  are  of  but  short  dura- 
tion, but  which  must  be  met  by  equipment  which  lies  idle  at 
other  times  or  is  not  fully  utilized. 

The  question  of  municipal  power  plants  is  not  only  one 
which  must  be  considered  in  its  technical  phases,  but  one 
which  involves  administrative  problems  as  well,  and  unless  a 
city  is  efficiently  administered,  it  may  be  wiser  to  obtain  its 
power  from  local  power  companies  than  to  attempt  to  install 
and  operate  its  own  plants.  Before  final  action  is  taken,  it 
is  advisable  to  have  a  thorough  expert  investigation  and 
report  made  upon  the  subject  in  each  case,  by  a  competent 
and  disinterested  engineer. 

(I)   Electric  Street  Railways 

Systems  of  Railways;   Sub-stations;   Car  Barns;   Railway 
Equipment  and  Operation;  Financial  Aspect 

In  the  operation  of  a  street  railway  system,  the  equip- 
ment will  depend,  as  in  the  case  of  the  power  house,  upon 
the  conditions  to  be  met. 

If  the  system  is  a  local  one,  direct  current  at  600  volts 
should  be  adopted;  but  if  the  lines  run  into  distant  suburbs, 
the  best  current  to  adopt  is  the  single  phase  and  the  voltage 
may  run  to  10,000  or  15,000,  thus  reducing  line  loss. 

The  equipment  of  the  cars  should  be  such  as  to  run  on 
either  the  600  volts  direct  current  in  the  city,   or  on  the 


276 


CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


single  phase,  high  voltage  current  in  the  suburbs,  thus  pass- 
ing to  and  from  the  city  without  interruption. 

The  sub-stations  for  stepping  down  the  high  voltage 
current  should  be  well  situated  along  the  line  to  obtain  the 
most  economical  power  distribution.  They  are  preferably 
located  around  the  outskirts  of  the  city,  on  the  various  lines, 
so  that  high  voltage  current  will  not  be  brought  into  the 
city.  The  distribution  system  in  the  city  itself  should  be 
underground,  a  method  which  though  more  expensive  than 

the  overhead  distribution  sys- 
tem is  otherwise  preferable, 
due  to  the  many  advantages 
it  possesses. 

Car  parks  or  barns  for 
storing  cars,  either  in  the 
open  or  under  roof,  while  in 
some  cases  of  necessity  loca- 
ted at  convenient  points  along 
the  main  traffic  hnes,  should 
be  arranged  in  such  a  manner 
Fig.  70.  cross  section  of  the  ^s  not  to  be  architecturally 
METROPOLITAN  SUBWAY,  PARIS  unsightly.  Thcy  should  bc  of 
such  a  character  as  to  harmonize  with  the  surroundings,  if 
not  to  be  an  improvement  upon  them,  since  they  are  at  best 
a  nuisance  and  an  impediment  to  trafTic.  The  company 
should  maintain  strict  discipline  and  not  have  large  crowds  of 
motormen  lounging  about  the  streets  to  the  annoyance  of  the 
public.  The  streets  are  for  the  use  of  the  public  and  not  for 
the  transaction  of  the  business  of  private  corporations. 

In  most  cases  it  will  be  possible  to  have  car  barns  located 
at  or  near  the  ends  of  the  lines,  while  in  other  cities,  large 
union  stations,  serving  at  once  for  passengers  and  for  car 
storage,  may  be  erected. 

In  developing  a  comprehensive  trafTic  system,  thorough 
study  of  the  flow  of  traffic  should  be  made,  and  its  probable 
increase  taken  into  account.  \Yhere  the  traffic  is  heavy  or 
likely  to  grow  to  large  proportions,  especially  where  the 
haul  is  long  and  heavy,  the  question  of  subways  and  elevated 


ELECTRIC  STREET  RAILWAYS 


277 


t -'1A4— - 


roads  should  be  considered,  even  though  the  necessity  is  not 
imperative,  as  such  rapid  and  convenient  means  of  transit  to 
outlying  districts  will  have  the  effect  of  developing  such 
sections  and  of  causing  the  city  to  expand  much  more  rapidly 
than  would  otherwise  be  the 
case.  The  same  is  also  true,  to 
only  a  less  degree,  in  the  case 
of  suburban  trolley  Hues. 

In  the  development  of  a 
traction  system,  much  depends 
on  the  comfort  and  convenience 
of  the  travelling  public.  The 
equipment  should  be  up  to  date 
and  attractive  in  every  respect. 
Cars  should  be  of  appropriate 
design  and  of  neat  appearance. 
Means  of  access  should  be  easy, 
the  seats  should  be  comfortably 
designed  and  preferably  cross- 
wise in  the  car,  as  the  public  is   pic.    71.     cross    section    of 


BERLIN     ELEVATED      RAILROAD 

Showing  solidly  constructed  road-bed 
beneath  which  is  a  Promenade.  This 
structure  is  popularly  known  as  Berlin's 
Umbrella. 


paying  for  a  seat  and  should 
have  a  seat  and  not  a  crowded 
bit  of  a  side  bench  or  a  strap 
to  hang  on  by. 

A  new  form  of  car  is  being 
experimented  with  in  New  York  which  promises  to  supersede 
the  old  forms  of  cars  to  a  large  extent.  Its  floor  is  but  six 
inches  above  the  rails  and  entrance  is  through  side  doors  in 
the  middle.  This  car  has  the  advantage  of  being  a  pay-as- 
you-enter  car  and  one  which  the  passengers  cannot  enter  or 
leave  while  it  is  in  motion.  One  of  the  most  fruitful  sources 
of  accidents  is  thus  done  away  with.  Its  seats  are  arranged 
crosswise  and  small  posts  are  provided  for  those  who  must 
stand,  a  method  superior  to  straps.  The  car  is  pleasing  in 
appearance,  and  is  the  most  radical  departure  that  has  been 
made  in  street  car  construction  in  this  country  for  a  long 
while.  The  experimental  cars  have  proven  so  satisfactory 
that  the  company  has  ordered  150  more  of  the  type. 


278  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

Abroad,  it  is  customary  for  companies  calling  for  bids  on 
electric  traction  systems  to  receive  not  only  specifications  of 
cars,  but  also  detailed  designs,  showing  color  schemes  and 
interior  decorations.  The  companies  are  thus  in  position  to 
select  the  most  pleasing  and  effective  designs  of  cars  instead 
of  taking  whatever  car  manufacturers  may  be  pleased  to 
turn  out. 

In  handling  trafTic,  the  convenience  and  interest  of  the 
pu])lic  as  well  as  of  the  operators  is  best  served  by  having  a 
uniform  fare  rate,  instead  of  a  variable  scale  of  fares,  and  by 
the  issuance  of  transfers  at  all  intersections.  Such  transfers 
should  be  issued  at  the  time  demanded  by  the  passenger, 
though  preferably  when  entering  the  car  if  the  ingress  of 
passengers  is  not  thereby  interfered  with.  If  demanded  on 
leaving  the  car,  traffic  is  likely  to  be  delayed. 

Abroad,  passengers  are  seldom  allowed  to  stand  in  cars 
and  operators  are  obliged  to  supply  sufficient  cars  so  that 
there  will  be  seats  for  all.  On  paying  his  fare,  the  passenger 
gets  a  ticket  with  the  destination  punched,  similar  to  our 
system  of  railroad  tickets,  and  this  ticket  in  many  cases 
entitles  the  passengers  to  reach  his  destination  over  any 
lines  that  intervene.  It  serves  also  as  a  transfer  and  must 
be  exhibited  to  the  conductor  whenever  demanded. 

Other  principal  features  of  street  railway  traffic  such 
as  the  arrangement  of  lines,  central  transfer  systems,  sur- 
face traction,  elevated  and  subway  traction,  moving  plat- 
forms and  statistics  of  rapid  transit  have  been  treated  at 
length  in  Chapter  IX,  Traffic  and  Transportation. 

It  is  often  asserted  that  cities  cannot  operate  public 
utilities  as  economically  as  can  private  corporations,  but 
that  this  is  not  true  is  amply  proved  in  practice.  A  good 
illustration  is  seen  in  the  street  railways  of  Sheffield,  England. 

In  1896  the  corporation  of  the  city  of  Sheffield  took  over 
the  street  transportation  of  the  city  as  a  municipal  under- 
taking and  has  since  demonstrated  beyond  dispute  that  its 
street  railways,  at  least,  can  be  operated  at  a  handsome 
profit,  pay  good  wages,  and  accommodate  the  traveling 
public  all  on  a  basis  of  1  penny  (2  cents)  fares. 


ELECTRIC  STREET  RAILWAYS 


279 


The  present  system  has  open  for  traffic  over  48  route 
miles  of  track,  of  which  38  are  doul^le.  The  construction, 
both  of  track  base  and  overhead  equipment,  is  claimed  to 
be  of  the  most  approved,  modern  and  durable  nature. 

Those  operating  this  enterprise  fulfill  the  most  advanced 
theories  of  consideration  for  workmen  by  providing  mess 
rooms  where  meals  arc  served  at  cost,  reading  and  billiard 
rooms,  lavatories,  and  comfort  facilities.  Wages,  in  cents  per 
hour,  are:    Motormen,  13|  on  joining;    14|  after  6  months; 


^ ij 


I i 


Fk;.  72.   CROSS  section  of  street  for  heavy  traffic 
Showing  two  Street  Car  Lines  and  Suspended  Elevated  Railroad  System 

15  after  further  6  months;  16  to  17  for  special  work,  with 
small  increase  for  merit  of  long-term  service.  Conductors, 
11 2  on  joining;  12  after  12  months;  13  after  further  6 
months,  with  small  increase  for  merit  after  Jong-term  service. 
Inspectors,  .$9.75  to  $10.70  per  week. 

The  service  commences  at  4.15  a.m.  from  the  depot  and 
finishes  at  1  a.m.  at  the  depot.  The  average  frequency  of 
service  is  5  minutes,  with  cars  as  close  as  3  minutes  on  busy 
lines  during  rush  hours.  The  average  speed  per  hour,  in- 
cluding stops,  is  7.4  miles,  whereas  the  maximum  speed  al- 
lowed is  16  miles  per  hour.    The  average  fare  per  mile  is 


280  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

0.772  cent.  The  regulation  fare  is  2  cents,  but  there  are 
1-cent  stages  throughout  the  business  section  of  the  city, 
which  range  from  one-half  to  three-quarters  of  a  mile. 
These  are  to  the  most-used  points  out  from  the  heart  of  the 
city.  There  are  fixed  stopping  places  throughout  the  entire 
system,  which  are  approximately  about  1  furlong  (one-eighth 
mile)  apart.  The  local  public  uses  the  tramways  to  the 
extent  of  207  miles  per  head  of  population  per  annum. 

For  the  year  just  passed  the  Sheffield  Corporation  ran 
its  street  cars  over  more  than  8,000,000  miles  and  carried 
approximately  100,000,000  passengers,  an  average  of  11.935 
passengers  per  car-mile,  at  an  average  fare  per  passenger  of 
1.808  cents. 

The  average  total  revenue  per  car  per  mile  was  21.783 
cents,  as  against  an  average  working  expense  per  car  per  mile 
of  12.506  cents,  giving  a  balance  net  revenue  per  car  per  mile 
of  9.27  cents,  or  on  the  total  system  for  the  year  a  balance 
net  revenue  account  of  $763,855.  Of  this,  about  $390,000 
was  appropriated  to  pay  interest  on  borrowed  capital  and 
for  a  sinking  fund  to  redeem  mortgages,  stocks,  and  bonds; 
about  $145,000  is  applied  to  a  reserve  fund  for  renewals,  re- 
pairs, and  improvements,  and  the  remaining  $228,855  paid 
over  to  the  city  during  the  fiscal  year  for  reduction  of  muni- 
cipal taxes  and  sundry  general  improvements. 

Since  1899  the  tramway  has  paid  over  to  the  municipality 
of  Sheffield  in  relief  of  district  taxes  and  in  grants  for  munic- 
ipal improvements  more  than  $2,000,000,  which,  considering 
the  low  rate  of  fares,  wages  paid,  and  the  efficiency  of  serv- 
ice rendered,  is  an  excellent  showing. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

VALUATION  OF  PUBLIC   UTILITIES 

Basis  for  Valuation;   Physical  Factors;  Equitable  Adjustment; 
Confiscatory  Valuation;    Valuation  in  City  Planning 

With  the  growing  tendency  of  municipalities  toward 
public  ownership  of  public  utilities,  and  especially  the  ten- 
dencies to  either  take  over  existing  plants  or  to  stipulate 
rates  and  charges,  the  determination  of  the  true  value  of 
public  utilities  becomes  of  great  importance.  When  charges 
to  the  public  for  service  are  fixed  on  the  basis  of  allowing 
the  operating  company  to  earn  a  certain  rate  of  return  on 
its  invested  capital  or  on  the  going  value  of  the  concern, 
any  improper  valuation  will  act  as  a  fraud  on  the  public, 
and  it  is,  therefore,  necessary  that  the  vaulation  be  made 
by  impartial  experts  and  in  the  most  thorough  and  careful 
manner  possible. 

Similarly  when  the  city  levies  taxes  or  acquires  proper- 
ties or  fixes  limits  or  grants  authorizations  for  new  issues 
of  stocks  or  bonds,  the  correct  valuation  of  the  property 
is  essential,  while  when  arrangements  are  made  to  take  over 
property  at  the  end  of  a  term  of  years,  or  when  adjustments 
of  rates  are  to  be  made  at  fixed  periods,  the  methods  of 
valuation  should  be  prescribed  and  faithfully  carried  out. 

When  uniform  systems  of  accounting  are  prescribed,  the 
question  of  valuation  should  be  settled  and  a  proper  basis 
for  the  opening  of  the  books  of  account  provided. 

Further,  in  the  matter  of  assessments  for  purposes  of 
apportioning  the  cost  of  public  improvements,  such  as  the 
widening  of  streets  and  cutting  through  of  new  streets,  the 
question  of  valuation  is  of  the  first  consequence. 

Valuation,  thus  a  matter  of  the  greatest  civic  importance, 
is  essentially  a  judicial  matter,  consisting  in  arriving  first 


282  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

at  as  complete  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  as  possible  and  then 
an  equitable  decision  in  the  light  of  the  facts  disclosed.  It 
is  one  of  the  processes  of  justice  and  those  having  charge  of 
valuation  should  be  of  a  judicial  temperament,  not  likely 
to  be  swayed  by  prejudice  and  of  course  wholly  above  the 
suggestion  of  ulterior  motive. 

At  the  same  time  it  is  very  necessary  for  those  in  charge 
of  valuations  to  have  ample  experience  and  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  numerous  devices  of  corporation  bookkeep- 
ing so  that  they  may  be  equipped  to  ascertain  the  facts  in 
the  case  and  not  be  deceived  by  corporation  managers. 

In  making  a  valuation  for  a  property  and  such  a  valua- 
tion as  will  be  fair  and  equitable,  many  complicated  con- 
siderations are  encountered.  The  basis  of  the  valuation 
must  be  fixed  and  three  principal  methods  are  employed  for 
this  purpose: 

The  determination  of  the  physical  value  of  the  property. 

The  determination  of  its  earning  capacity. 

The  determination  of  the  value  of  its  good  will. 

Taking  for  example  the  water  supply  system  of  the  city, 
the  physical  value  of  the  property  may  be  approximately 
fixed  by  ascertaining 

(a)  The  cost  of  replacing  the  system  by  a  new  one. 

(b)  The  cost  of  the  original  system. 

(c)  Deduction  of  depreciation  of  original  system. 

The  cost  of  a  new  system  may  be  either  more  or  less 
than  the  cost  of  the  original,  depending  on  labor,  market 
and  other  conditions,  but  after  estimating  the  cost  of  a  new 
system,  deduction  should  be  made  for  the  depreciation  of 
the  old  system,  as  a  new  system  would  be  obviously  more 
valuable  than  the  existing  one. 

The  cost  of  the  original  system  may  be  ascertained  by 
the  records  of  the  construction  work  or  from  other  sources, 
or  if  these  are  not  obtainable  estimates  may  be  made.  The 
books  of  a  corporation  are  not  always  an  accurate  index 
of  the  original  cost  of  a  public  utility,  for  various  improper 
charges  may  appear  such  as  exorbitant  salaries  of  officers, 
padded  pay  rolls,  charges  for  equipment  and   supplies  never 


CASTLE  PLAZA  AND  EVANGELICAL  CATHEDRAL,  BERLIN 


BURG    THEATRE,    VIENNA 
Auxiliary  civic  centers  dominated  hi/  prominent  structures 


VALUATION   OF   PUBLIC   UTILITIES  283 

purchased  and  other  fraudulent  entries  made  for  the  purpose 
of  cheating  either  the  corporation,  the  pubUc  or  both. 

The  real  value  of  a  public  utility  is  shown  better  perhaps 
by  its  earning  capacity  than  in  any  other  way.  If  a  change 
of  ownership  occurred  between  private  owners,  the  barter 
price  would  be  largely  determined  by  the  amount  of  divi- 
dends that  could  be  derived  from  the  operation  of  the  prop- 
erty, while  at  the  same  time  its  depreciation  charges  were 
being  met. 

Taking  for  example  a  water  supply  system  costing 
$5,000,000  to  install,  having  been  in  operation  for  ten  years 
without  depreciation  having  been  charged  off,  and  showing 
a  yearly  profit  of  $1,000,000;  the  question  would  arise  as 
to  whether  the  valuation  should  be  based  on  the  cost  less 
depreciation  or  on  the  earning  power,  and  if  on  the  earning 
power,  what  rate  per  cent  of  profit  should  be  allowed  the 
owners? 

Allowing  a  depreciation  of  5  per  cent  per  annum  the 
present  value  would  be  $2,500,000.  If  that  amount,  how- 
ever, be  the  only  investment  allowed,  the  profits  of  $1,000,- 
000  a  year  would  be  $750,000  net  or  a  30  per  cent  profit 
on  the  physical  valuation  of  $2,500,000. 

However,  it  is  obvious  that  the  owners  are  entitled  to 
more  than  the  mere  physical  valuation,  since  other  factors 
cannot  fairly  be  neglected.  Their  investment  is  yielding 
$750,000  per  annum.  Their  claim  would  be  that  on  the 
taking  over  of  the  property  they  should  be  reimbursed  in 
a  sum  which  would  net  them  a  return  of  $750,000.  They 
would  be  likely  to  claim  a  valuation  at  low  percentages. 
Thus  if  they  claimed  a  sum  which  at  4  per  cent  would 
yield  $750,000,  it  would  be  necessary  to  pay  them  $18,750,- 
000  for  the  property,  while  if  the  city  allowed  them  on  the 
basis  of  6  per  cent  it  would  be  necessary  to  pay  them  only 
$12,500,000  for  the  property.  The  diHerence  between  the 
physical  value  and  these  income  valuations  would  represent 
good  will,  development  work,  value  of  franchises  and  a  cer- 
tain profit  for  the  risk  involved.  The  public,  however,  would 
by  no  means  care  to  pay  twelve  or  eighteen  million  dollars 


284  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

for  a  property  physically  worth  only  two  and  one-half 
millions,  and  would  in  a  physical  valuation  lose  sight  of  the 
elements  of  risk,  franchises,  development  and  good  will, 
and  if  only  rates  were  at  stake  and  the  question  of  taking 
over  the  property  not  involved,  would  probably  demand  a 
reduction  of  rates  to  a  point  where  instead  of  showing  30 
per  cent  on  $2,500,000  the  company  could  only  show  5 
per  cent  or  6  per  cent  over  depreciation,  or  some  $125,000 
to  $150,000  profit. 

The  corporation  would  no  doubt,  however,  in  the  mean- 
time have  capitalized  its  venture  at  some  $50,000,000  in 
stock  which  selling  to  the  public  on  the  the  basis  of  $30  per 
share  of  the  par  value  of  $100,  would  show  a  dividend  of  5  per 
cent  on  the  market  price  of  $30,  although  back  of  it  there 
would  be  only  $2,500,000  of  actual  physical  value. 

Most  public  utilities  are  in  some  such  condition  as  this. 
The  watered  stock  has  been  sold  to  certain  members  of  the 
public  who  have  bought  innocently  supposing  the  stock  to 
be  worth  the  market  price,  if  not  in  physical  value  then  in 
good  will,  going  value,  franchises  and  risk  overcome.  The 
promoters  have  long  since  taken  their  ill-gotten  profits  and 
have  left  the  purchasers  of  the  stock  in  possession  of  the 
property.  The  latter  have  paid  far  too  much  and  the 
general  public,  feeling  the  pinch  of  the  high  rates,  is  either 
compelled  to  go  on  paying  the  high  rates,  or,  to  reduce 
the  rates,  to  take  the  property  over  at  a  valuation  which  will 
mean  enormous  losses  to  the  stockholders  who  purchased 
in  innocence  of  the  true  state  of  affairs.  The  general  public 
in  permitting  such  an  inflation  of  the  stock  issues  is  tacitly 
a  party  to  the  fraud,  but  when  finally  aroused  it  finds  no 
one  at  hand  on  whom  to  wreak  vengeance  save  the  inno- 
cent stockholders  partially  deceived  by  the  apathy  not  to 
say  connivance  of  the  general  public  itself. 

The  public  feels  that  the  corporation  has  no  right  to 
demand  dividends  on  franchise  values  granted  by  the  public 
itself  and  the  tendency  is  strongly  in  evidence  to  override 
any  possible  rights  of  the  stockholders  and  trim  rates  and 
valuations  down  to  a  strictly  physical  basis. 


VALUATION   OF  PUBLIC   UTILITIES  285 

This  is  a  course  which,  however  beneficial  it  may  prove 
to  the  public  at  the  outset,  will  involve  serious  consequences 
later  on,  since  investors  of  capital  expect  a  greater  profit 
from  their  money  than  that  to  be  derived  merely  from  a 
property  physically  equal  in  value  to  their  investment. 
The  risk  of  loss  entitles  them  to  a  greater  profit  and  there 
are  the  costs  of  organization  and  development  which  are 
absolutely  essential  but  which  are  not  represented  by  any- 
thing having  a  physical  value.  They  are  also  entitled  to 
a  certain  profit  on  the  successful  carrying  through  of  such 
work  and  on  the  good  will,  or  the  tendency  of  the  puljlic 
to  continue  to  patronize  the  service.  They  are  entitled  to 
such  profit  because  they  could  have  made  it  had  they 
placed  their  money  in  a  private  enterprise. 

If  the  general  public  is  to  obtain  money  for  further 
improvements,  it  must  be  sufficiently  liberal  in  allowing 
profits  to  those  who  have  invested,  to  attract  new  investors 
to  its  enterprises. 

Practically  all  public  utilities  throughout  the  United 
States  are  encumbered  with  issues  of  watered  stocks.  The 
promoters  having  seized  their  profits  through  successfully 
incurring  the  risks  involved,  and  through  having  capitalized 
franchises  costing  little  or  nothing  at  millions  and  good 
will  long  before  it  came  into  existence,  can  no  longer  be 
held  to  account.  Their  work  is  done,  whether  for  good  or 
ill,  yet  the  public  should  not  punish  the  innocent  but  should 
allow  a  full  and  fair  if  not  a  liberal  reckoning,  for  there  is 
alsa  a  prospective  value  to  many  such  enterprises.  That  is 
to  say,  if  allowed  to  develop  along  the  lines  planned,  they 
are  likely  to  become  in  time  as  valuable  as  the  par  value 
of  the  stocks  issued  against  them  by  their  promoters,  and 
the  public  by  cutting  down  valuations  to  a  physical  basis 
is  in  reality  confiscating  both  realized  and  future  legitimate 
profits,  for  it  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  if  invested 
in  private  undertakings,  the  capital  involved  would  prob- 
ably have  shown  a  higher  return  than  in  the  public  utility 
enterprises. 

In  taking  over  a  property,  or  in  fixing  rates,  therefore, 


286  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

the  public  should  not  take  advantage  of  its  power  and 
position  and  fix  confiscatory  terms,  unless  perhaps  the 
original  swindlers  are  still  in  possession,  but  should  pay  as 
much  for  the  utility  as  it  would  be  worth  fairly  in  the 
market,  or  if  rates  are  to  be  fixed,  use  such  sale  sum  as 
the  basis  of  the  investment  on  which  the  rates  are  predicated. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  question  of  valuation  of  public 
utilities  is  highly  complicated  and  involved  and  that  it 
accordingly  requires  the  most  careful  and  impartial  atten- 
tion, in  order  that  a  fair  balance  may  be  struck  between  the 
public  on  one  side  and  the  stockholder  on  the  other  as 
regards  both  the  physical  valuation  itself  and  the  more 
intricate  subject  of  extra  physical  valuation. 

Valuation  is  a  highly  important  factor  in  city  planning, 
for  in  order  to  proceed  intelligently,  it  is  necessary  to  know 
the  value  of  the  property  affected.  Although  cities  are 
already  more  or  less  roughly  valued  for  purposes  of  taxa- 
tion, they  should,  prior  to  any  extensive  improvements,  have 
thorough  valuations  made,  including  all  municipal  and 
utility  properties  such  as  public  buildings,  water  works,  gas, 
electric  and  other  systems,  transportation  lines,  and  all 
public  and  private  real  estate.  With  a  complete  and  accu- 
rate valuation  at  hand  improvements  may  be  undertaken 
with  an  exact  knowledge  of  what  the  cost  will  be  and  how 
it  will  be  met.  Without  such  valuation,  expensive  mistakes 
are  likely  to  occur  and  the  greater  part  of  the  benefits  lost. 


CHAPTER  XX 

FINANCING   CIVIC  IMPROVEMENTS 

Distribution  of  Costs;  Excess  Condemnation;  Apportionment 
of  Assessments;  Commission  of  Assessment  and  Condem- 
nation 

The  first  cost  of  the  replanning  of  a  city  is  the  principal 
obstacle  which  has  to  be  overcome.  Although  there  can  be 
no  question  of  its  ultimate  value  and  almost  incalculable 
value  to  the  city,  yet  the  problem  of  securing  the  necessary 
capital  and  the  proper  distribution  of  the  burdens  and  the 
benefits  to  be  derived  requires  careful  and  competent 
financing. 

While  cities  like  Paris,  London  and  Berlin  have  spent 
and  are  spending  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars  on  improve- 
ments, they  are  only  able  to  do  it  at  the  cost  of  consider- 
able additional  burdens  to  the  taxpayers,  which  in  smaller 
cities  though  proportionately  less  would  still  be  insupportable. 

A  just  and  proper  distribution  of  the  cost  should  proceed 
on  the  theory  that  those  benefited  should  bear  the  cost.  In 
city  planning,  those  benefited  are  the  property  owners 
directly  affected  and  the  whole  body  of  citizens  not  only 
of  the  present  generation  but  of  future  generations.  It  is 
therefore  proper  to  place  the  cost  of  the  improvements  on 
the  property  owner  immediately  benefited  by  means  of 
assessments  or  otherwise,  on  the  whole  body  of  citizens  by 
an  increased  tax  rate  and  on  the  future  generations  by  the 
issuance  of  long-time  bonds. 

The  utmost  care  should  be  taken,  however,  in  the  arrange- 
ments adopted  to  prevent  profits  by  land  speculators  and 
to  obviate  unnecessary  burdens  on  the  taxpayers. 

The  principal  methods  adopted  are  those  of  assessments, 
gradually   decreasing   in   extent   with   the    distance    of    the 


288  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

property  from  the  improvement,  and  the  more  recent  plan 
of  excess  condemnation. 

In  European  cities  where  excess  condemnation  is  prac- 
ticed, the  city  purchases  by  condemnation  proceedings  not 
only  the  land  needed  for  the  proposed  improvements, 
whether  it  be  for  a  street,  a  park  or  other  purpose,  but  in 
addition  as  much  more  land  as  is  likely  to  be  increased  in 
value  by  the  improvements.  After  the  improvements  have 
been  made,  the  land  is  held  and  sold  from  time  to  time,  to 
the  best  advantage,  or  it  is  developed  and  held  by  the  city 
for  a  long  period  until  a  favorable  opportunity  arises  for  its 
sale. 

Excess  condemnation  is  highly  desirable  for  sites  of 
schools,  parks  and  the  like  which  are  in  contemplation,  as 
the  city  may  hold  the  land  over  a  long  term  of  years  in 
advance  of  its  utilization,  and  be  saved  the  high  cost  of 
sites  whose  purchase  is  delayed  until  the  city  is  built  up. 

Excess  condemnation,  however,  as  a  means  of  paying 
for  the  cost  of  improvements  is  open  to  serious  objections. 
The  enhancement  in  real  estate  values  after  the  improve- 
ments are  made,  is  seldom  more  than  half  the  cost  of  the 
improvement,  besides  which  there  is  the  interest  on  the 
bonds  and  the  loss  of  taxes  that  would  have  been  paid  by 
private  owners  on  the  land  so  condemned.  In  order  to 
obtain  the  full  cost  of  the  improvement  from  the  increased 
value  of  the  land,  the  city  would  have  to  improve  the 
property  and  hold  it  over  a  term  of  years  until  the  full 
value  of  the  improvement  was  realized,  for  the  immediate 
enhancement  of  land  values  does  not,  of  course,  represent 
the  full  benefit  of  the  improvement.  In  addition,  a  large 
improvement  of  this  character  is  likely  to  demand  the 
marketing  of  bonds  far  beyond  the  city's  borrowing  limit, 
although  if  the  property  is  productive,  the  borrowing  limit 
should  be  raised  to  include  it. 

The  most  direct  method  of  assessing  the  property  owners 
offers  advantages  over  the  excess  condemnation  system 
particularly  when  all  the  property  benefited  is  assessed, 
even  though  it  is  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  loca- 


HALL    OF    LIBERTY,    REGENSBURG    (.RATISBON) 


BAVARL\    MONUMENT    AND    HALL    OF    FAME,    MUNICH 
Examples  of  great  memorials  containing  numerous  monuments  to  militarii  heroes.     Me- 
morials of  this  character  attract  large  numbers  of  visitors.     Numerous  opportunities 
exist  for  simitar  structures  in  the  United  States. 


MONUMENT    OF    EMPEROR    WILHELM    I.,    BONN 
Erected  at  the  junction  of  the  rirers  Mosel  and  Rhine 


kyiih.usi;r  monimi;nt  in  thi-;  harz  mointains 
Erected  by  the  Gern}an  military  associations  at  a  cost  of  $200,000:  to  the  left  a 

ruined  castle 


FINANCING   CIVIC   IMPROVEMENTS  289 

tion  of  the  improvement  itself.  As  the  purpose  of  excess 
condemnation  is  simply  to  enable  the  city  to  reimburse 
itself  for  the  cost  of  the  improvement  by  the  benefits  de- 
rived therefrom,  assessment  proves  to  be  a  method  for 
large  improvements,  just  as  equitable  and  effective  since 
those  benefited  pay  the  sum  directly  to  the  city,  instead 
of  having  to  sell  their  property  to  the  city  and  then  perhaps 
buy  it  back  again. 

Direct  assessment,  however,  is  open  to  many  serious 
objections,  for  the  amounts  must  be  arbitarily  fixed  and 
may  and  may  not  prove  fair.  Further,  the  property  owners 
must  obtain  the  capital  immediately  and  the  amount  is 
thus  withdrawn  at  once  instead  of  being  distributed  over 
a  term  of  years  as  in  the  sale  of  bonds. 

Experience  is  necessary  in  assessing  property,  since  the 
property  owners  are  entitled  to  have  the  burden  equitably 
adjusted  and  to  know  in  advance  what  they  will  have  to 
pay.  The  assessments  should  not  decrease  in  direct  propor- 
tion to  the  distance  from  the  improvement,  but  in  a  more 
sharply  decreasing  ratio,  the  most  equitable  for  which 
should  be  obtained  and  applied  by  those  who  are  called 
upon  to  make  assessments. 

The  only  American  state  to  authorize  excess  condemna- 
tion is  Massachusetts.  Although  presented  to  the  voters 
of  New  York  as  a  constitutional  amendment,  it  was  rejected. 

Legislation,  too,  on  the  subject  of  excess  condemnation 
should  not  be  undertaken  without  careful  study  and  prepara- 
tion. The  lack  of  clearness  in  the  Massachusetts  law  should 
be  avoided,  leaving  as  it  does,  unsettled,  the  question  of  the 
right  of  the  city  even  to  replace  fronts  on  buildings  taken 
in  excess,  previous  to  the  resale  of  the  land.  Blunders  of 
this  kind  are  too  easily  avoided  to  be  permitted  to  occur. 

Both  in  the  case  of  excess  condemnation  and  in  assess- 
ments, a  question  of  importance  is  the  extent  to  which 
the  systems  should  be  carried.  It  will  be  obvious  that 
assessments  may  properly  cover  a  much  larger  area  than 
condemnation  proceedings  and  that  a  more  equitable  distri- 
bution of  cost  will  be  had. 


290  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

The  apportionment  of  assessments  depends  also  on  the 
nature  of  the  improvements.  Thus  an  improvement  purely 
local  in  character  may  properly  be  wholly  assessed  against 
the  abutting  property,  while  those  of  more  general  char- 
acter should  be  more  generally  assessed. 

In  a  paper  before  the  Fourth  Conference  on  City  Plan- 
ning, 1912,  Nelson  P.  Lewis,  chief  engineer  of  the  Board  of 
Estimate  and  Apportionment  of  New  York  City,  discussed 
the  subject  of  assessing  the  cost  of  improvements,  especially 
street  opening  and  widening. 

"We  must  determine  to  what  extent  the  benefit  will  be 
strictly  local,  in  what  degree  it  will  extend  to  a  larger  tribu- 
tary area,  and  again,  how  much  it  will  mean  to  the  entire 
city  or  metropohtan  district.  In  the  case  of  residential 
streets,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to  give  light,  air  and  access 
to  the  developments  located  upon  them,  the  benefit  will  be 
entirely  local,  and  the  entire  cost  can  properly  be  imposed 
upon  the  abutting  property.  When  a  highway  is  given  a 
more  generous  width  in  the  expectation  that  it  will  be  called 
upon  to  accommodate  a  certain  amount  of  through  traffic, 
the  benefit  is  more  extended  and  the  assessment  in  such  a 
case  may  be  prolonged  to  a  line  midway  between  it  and 
and  the  next  street  of  more  than  residential  width.  The 
major  part  of  the  cost,  however,  should  be  confined  to  the 
abutting  property,  so  that  the  cost  to  it  should  be  some- 
what more  than  that  of  the  narrower  streets.  In  the  case 
of  arterial  thoroughfares,  or  in  that  of  the  first  street  to  be 
opened  through  an  undeveloped  territory,  the  effect  of  which 
will  be  to  give  access  to  and  to  stimulate  the  development 
of  a  large  area,  the  district  of  benefit  will  be  correspondingly 
enlarged.  Again,  in  the  case  of  thoroughfares  of  excep- 
tional width,  which  it  is  proposed  to  treat  as  boulevards,  the 
entire  city  or  metropolitan  district  will  be  substantially  bene- 
fited and  should  bear  a  proportion  of  the  expense.  In  fact, 
the  State  itself  may  derive  an  advantage  which  would  justify 
its  assumption  of  a  portion  of  the  cost,  but  the  disposition 
to  recognize  such  an  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  Common- 
wealth is  exceedingly  rare,  even  though  a  great  city  within 


FINANCING   CIVIC   IMPROVEMENTS 


291 


its  limits  may,  through  its  large 
taxable  values,  contribute  the 
larger  part  of  the  State's  rev- 
enues by  which  its  rural  high- 
way system  is  maintained. 

"In  the  case  of  parks,  this 
same  principle  might  be  applied. 
Some  small  parks  are  of  strictly 
local  benefit,  and  their  cost  could 
properly  be  placed  upon  the  dis- 
trict in  which  they  are  located. 

"  In  the  case  of  street  widen- 
ing or  the  cutting  through  of 
new  streets,  the  local  advantage 
is  less  marked,  though  it  will 
always  follow.  The  mere  fact 
that  a  widening  or  extension  is 
required  to  accommodate  traffic 
is  conclusive  evidence  that  the 
street  has  assumed  more  than 
local  importance.  The  width  of 
the  roadway  as  widened  is  not 
an  index  of  its  local  or  general 
importance.  There  may  be 
cases  where  the  opening  of  a 
new  street  of  a  width  commonly 
given  to  local  streets  and  ex- 
tending for  a  very  short  dis- 
tance would,  on  account  of  its 
strategic  position,  be  of  very 
great  general  and  of  little  local 
benefit. 

"It  is  quite  apparent  that 
the   relative   local,    district    or 

general  benefit  of  any  street  or  other  improvement 
be  determined  neither  by  its  dimensions  nor  its  cost.  An 
improvement  involving  an  expenditure  of  $1,000,000  in  one 
part  of  the  city  may  be  more  distinctly  local  in  its  bene- 


FiG.  73. 


can 


292  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

ficial  effect  than  one  costing  $50,000  in  another  section. 
No  fixed  rule  can  be  established  to  govern  the  distribution 
of  expense.  It  must  be  determined  in  each  case  after  a 
painstaking  investigation.  Such  investigation  should  not  be 
entrusted  to  a  different  individual,  board  or  commission  in 
each  case.  There  should  be  a  permanent  body  which  should 
act  in  all  cases.  This  body  should  not  be  large,  and  it 
should  be  so  constituted  that  its  entire  personnel  could  not 
be  changed  at  once,  thus  insuring  continuity  and  consist- 
ency of  policy.  They  should  be  broad  men  whose  train- 
ing should  have  fitted  them  for  their  difficult  and  delicate 
duties.  The  misleading  evidence  commonly  called  expert 
testimony  as  to  existing  and  prospective  values  will  be 
of  little  value  to  them.  They  should  be  capable  by  ex- 
perience and  intelligence  of  forming  their  own  conclu- 
sions." 

An  interesting  example  of  an  assessment  area  is  that 
proposed  for  the  extension  of  Seventh  Avenue,  in  New  York 
City,  through  to  Varick  Street,  the  widening  of  Varick 
Street  and  the  further  extension  to  Leonard  Street  and  West 
Broadway,  about  a  mile  and  a  quarter. 

A  large  assessment  zone  surrounds  the  proposed  improve- 
ment itself,  three-eighths  of  a  mile  on  either  side  and  half  a 
block  deep,  (300  feet)  on  each  side  of  Seventh  Avenue  to 
42d  Street,  almost  two  miles  above  the  upper  terminus  of 
the  improvement. 

The  abrupt  demonstrations  of  the  assessment  zone  would 
seem  to  be  far  from  equitable  unless  a  carefully  graded  rate 
is  imposed  on  different  parts  of  the  zone.  The  problem  is 
comparatively  simple  as  regards  the  abutting  property,  but 
the  proper  assessment  of  neighboring  and  distant  parcels 
is  likely  to  be  unfairly  carried  out. 

For  this  reason  it  would  probably  be  desirable  in  many 
cases  to  subject  the  abutting  property  to  excess  condemna- 
tion and  the  outlying  parcels  to  assessments. 

The  extension  of  the  system  of  excess  condemnation  by 
the  legislatures  of  the  various  states  will  undoubtedly  occur 
from  time  to  time,  as  the  system  is  one  of  great  advantage 


FINANCING  CIVIC   IMPROVEMENTS  293 

under  certain  circumstances  where  a  city  controls  its  own 
development  and  can  acquire  park  sites  and  land  for 
other  purposes  many  years  in  advance  of  its  actual  utili- 
zation. The  land  can  be  had  at  a  slight  expense  by  this 
procedure. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  PLANNING  OF  GROWING   TOWNS 

Planning  Towns  at  the  Outset;  Cost  of  Town  Planning;  Neces- 
sity of  Expert  Knowledge;  Principal  Factors  in  Town 
Planning;    Town  Sites;    Civic   Improvement  Associations 

The  one  thing  of  all  things  which  prevents  cities  from 
being  properly  planned  is  lack  of  civic  imagination.  The 
citizens  of  a  small  town  never  imagine  that  their  town  will 
become  a  large  city.  They  may  individually  at  times  dream 
of  a  great  city  spreading  out  around  the  nucleus  in  which 
they  live  and  they  very  frequently  boast  of  the  progress  of 
the  town  during  the  previous  decade,  but  the  time  when 
their  town  is  to  be  a  great  city  seems  so  far  distant  that 
as  a  whole  they  do  not  imagine  that  it  will  ever  occur. 
The  few  enthusiastic  souls  who  individually  believe  it  are 
patronized  or  laughed  at  and  the  citizens  as  a  body  do  not 
have  the  assurance  to  walk  out  into  unoccupied  fields  and 
lay  out  sites  for  parks,  squares,  centers,  libraries  and  monu- 
ments which  may  possibly  come  into  existence  a  century 
later,  or  possibly  never.  It  is  too  chimerical  to  be  con- 
sidered, and  indeed  in  towns  of  even  large  size  it  may  be 
that  not  a  soul  is  aware  of  the  benefits  which  it  is  within 
the  power  of  the  present  generation  to  bestow  on  posterity, 
benefits  so  great  that  city  planning  is  a  civic  duty  demanding 
adequate  and  prompt  performance. 

Time  quickly  slips  by  and  the  sites  for  great  improve- 
ments which  once  might  have  been  laid  out  and  reserved, 
the  convenient  plans  which  only  needed  to  be  committed  to 
paper,  become  impossible  save  at  enormous  and  prohibitive 
expense.  It  thus  happens  that  many  cities  have  plans 
originally  determined  by  the  fancy  of  the  homewardly 
meandering  cow,  and  great  volumes  of  traffic  must  indef- 


NAPLES,    ITALY,    VESUVIUS    IN    THE    DISTANCE 
An   entire   city   in    a   color   scheme   of  while 


WORKINGMEN  S    COLONY,    ALFKEUSHOK 
Prololype  of  English  garden  cilies 


GENERAL    VIEW    OF    LIMBURG  —  LAHN    VALLEY 
An  excellent  example  of  a  church  dominating  the  other  hiiildings  of  the  cilii 


i^SSKSI^ 

^ 

^SE^HBltanfltt*.             «■ 

'  wSHK^bia^r^'   •  '   -'^P^  ''^"V 

"^rv  ^C^VSWMBIfl^R^^M 

-^^;^^^y^ 

ip^-'  ^   _,          ;   -'^■^ 

^''-'''^^^^Afrf. 

^'5^-v,^W^^, 

GENERAL    VIEW    OF    COBURG    WITH    THE    VESTE    ON    THE    HILL 

.S'o  placed  as  to  crown  the  citi/'s  plan 


PLANNING   OF   GROWING  TOWNS  295 

nitely  follow  the  paths  thus  marked  out  unless  expensive 
changes  be  made. 

America  is  bound  to  grow  vastly  in  the  next  century  and 
the  village  of  to-day  to  become  the  metropolis  of  the  future. 
Yet  few  if  any  of  such  towns  have  plans  as  yet  laid  out  and 
many  a  patient  cow  is  still  contributing  her  humble  share 
to  the  city  planning  of  the  future  while  worthy  citizens  are 
less  usefully  employed. 

The  only  American  cities  which  have  good  plans  are 
those  which  were  laid  out  on  the  virgin  soil  a  century  ago, 
namely  Washington  and  Buffalo,  but  it  took  imagination  to 
lay  them  out,  to  design  their  plans  to  accommodate  the 
needs  of  our  own  time  in  those  early  days  when  even  the 
most  enthusiastic  could  not  have  foreseen  the  great  develop- 
ments which  have  occurred.  We  now  believe  that  we  can 
look  forward  to  and  form  a  reasonably  accurate  estimate  of 
the  cities  of  the  future,  but  it  is  questionable  whether  we 
can  forecast  progress  any  more  surely  than  did  our  fore- 
fathers of  a  century  ago.  It,  therefore,  follows  that  every 
town  of  whatever  size  owes  to  its  future  the  laying  out  of 
a  suitable  plan  now  at  a  time  when  it  can  be  done  at  small 
expense  and  on  a  free  field. 

The  cost  of  laying  out  the  plan  of  a  city  while  the  city 
is  still  small  is  so  insignificant  compared  with  the  benefits 
to  be  derived  that  it  should  not  enter  into  consideration. 
The  cost  of  such  a  plan  is  the  best  possible  investment  that 
a  city  can  make,  not  only  in  the  saving  of  future  expense, 
but  for  its  sentimental  value,  for  when  the  future  of  a  city 
is  planned,  that  of  itself  supplies  an  incentive  to  growth  as 
there  is  something  definite  to  be  accomplished,  and  the 
town  is  more  likely  to  increase  in  size  and  importance 
through  having  such  a  plan  than  where  its  growth  is  purely 
at  haphazard.  At  the  same  time,  its  enterprising  citizens 
are  more  likely  to  remain  and  help  build  up  the  town  than 
to  go  to  larger  cities,  while  besides  retaining  its  own  popula- 
tion, it  draws  from  less  enterprising  cities  and  its  growth 
is  accordingly  still  further  stimulated. 

A  small  city  in  laying  out  the  plan  for  future  growth 


296  CITY  PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 


Fig.  74.  proposed  great  ground  plan  of  tempelhofer-feld,  a 

part  of  greater  berlin 
The  intentional  irregularity  of  the  plan  produces  variety  in  the  appearance  of  the  streets 


PLANNING   OF   GROWING  TOWNS  297 

should  proceed  with  caution  and  discrimination,  and  should 
obtain  the  best  and  most  experienced  civic  engineering  talent 
for  the  purpose.  The  existing  large  cities  can  only  now  be 
replanned  so  that  in  them  the  civic  engineer  does  not  have 
much  opportunity  for  utilizing  his  talent,  while  at  the  same 
time  the  great  property  interests  involved  will  oppose  any 
wrong  developments.  In  the  small  city  where  the  civic 
engineer  has  a  free  hand  although  his  opportunities  are 
great,  the  possibilities  of  improper  planning  are  also  great, 
as  there  is  no  effective  check  against  the  mistakes  which 
may  arise  from  too  much  liberty  of  action  on  his  part.  The 
small  town  needs,  therefore,  to  be  just  as  careful  as  the 
larger  town  in  the  selection  of  the  designer  of  its  plans,  and 
needs  to  give  the  same  attention  to  the  subject  that  it 
would  if  the  millions  of  property  which  will  ultimately  be 
affected  were  already  at  hazard. 

The  small  town  should  begin  at  an  early  period  to 
accustom  itself  to  proper  regulations  of  different  kinds,  as 
only  by  suitable  regulation  may  the  plans  once  adopted  be 
carried  out,  while  if  habits  of  regulation  are  once  estab- 
lished the  growth  of  the  town  will  be  stimulated  and  the 
welfare  of  its  citizens  variously  promoted  and  no  hardships 
felt  in  developing  along  the  lines  laid  out. 

It  has  sometimes  happened  in  America  that  towns  have 
been  laid  out  along  certain  lines,  but  have  grown  off  at 
one  side  in  a  manner  not  intended  by  their  designers,  and 
such  towns  are  often  cited  as  examples  of  the  futility  of 
attempting  to  forecast  the  future  of  civic  developments. 
City  planning  has  accordingly  been  more  or  less  discredited 
and  the  tendency  has  been  to  permit  growth  in  whatever 
way  might  best  suit  the  private  interests  of  the  citizens. 

The  absurdity  of  laying  out  a  plan  and  then  expecting  a 
city  to  develop  along  such  lines  of  its  own  accord,  and  when 
it  does  not  the  added  absurdity  of  pointing  out  its  failure  to 
do  so  as  an  argument  against  city  planning,  is  an  adding  of 
insult  to  injury.  It  would  be  as  sensible  to  erect  a  grape 
arbor  and  expect  the  vines  to  follow  it  without  ties  as  to 
expect  a  city  to  follow  its  plan  without  the  ties  of  suitable 


298 


CITY   PLANNING   AND   MAINTENANCE 


Figs.  75  and  76.    two  great  ground  plans  of  city  extensions 

The  lower  is  much  preferable  since  the  mileage  is  smaller,  rendering  first  cost  and  main- 
tenance charges  less,  while  greater  variety  and  beauty  of  city  pictures  and  increased  con- 
venience results 


PLANNING   OF   GROWING  TOWNS  299 

regulations.  Indeed  such  regulations  are  an  absolute  neces- 
sity in  training  a  city's  growth;  they  are  to  the  growing  city 
what  discipUne  is  to  the  growing  schoolboy,  and  just  as 
indispensable  in  the  formation  of  the  character  and  habits 
of  the  city  as  discipline  is  in  the  formation  of  the  character 
of  the  boy. 

Suitable  regulations  are  an  integral  part  of  a  town's 
regime;  and  coincidentally  with  the  laying  out  of  its  plans, 
the  regulations  which  are  to  carry  it  into  eilect  should  be 
formulated  and  put  into  operation.  Such  regulations  should 
be  established  by  the  designer  of  the  town's  plan,  and 
carried  out  by  the  authorities  as  a  permanent  feature  of  the 
town's  operation,  for  only  in  this  way  can  the  benefits  of 
town  planning  be  realized. 

As  the  number  of  experienced  civic  engineers  is  neces- 
sarily limited  it  will  be  obvious  that  only  rarely  will  a  small 
town  have  among  its  citizens  a  capable  civic  engineer,  and 
it  will  therefore,  in  practically  all  cases,  be  necessary  to 
have  the  work  performed  by  an  expert  called  to  the  town 
for  the  purpose.  The  citizens  of  a  small  town  should  not 
under  any  circumstances  attempt  to  lay  out  a  plan  without 
such  expert  counsel,  for  their  unfamiliarity  with  the  subject 
cannot  fail  to  lead  to  expensive  though  well-meant  mis- 
takes. 

The  experienced  civic  engineer,  knowing  conditions  both 
at  home  and  abroad,  being  familiar  with  the  latest  develop- 
ments and  with  the  mistakes  made  and  the  successes 
achieved,  can  accomplish  the  desired  results  without  any 
waste  of  effort  or  liability  to  mistakes. 

He  has  the  further  advantage  of  being  able  to  treat  the 
subject  on  its  own  merits,  for  having  no  property  or  other 
interests  in  the  city  he  has  no  personal  incentives  to  bend 
the  plan  to  his  own  advantage,  as  is  likely  to  be  the  case  if 
the  plan  is  formulated  by  those  having  local  interests  to  be 
protected  or  advanced.  In  addition  to  these  reasons  in 
favor  of  the  outside  expert,  he  has  at  stake  his  own  profes- 
sional reputation,  which  impels  him  to  do  his  best  work  as 
otherwise  a  poor  example   of  town  planning  would  injure 


300  CITY  PLANNING  AND  MAINTENANCE 

his  standing  and  operate  against  him  in  obtaining  new  civic 
clients. 

The  work  of  town  planning  involves  so  many  and  such 
intricate  features  that  it  is  undesirable,  especially,  to  entrust 
it  to  local  civil  or  municipal  engineers,  for,  however  much 
experience  they  may  have  in  their  own  lines,  they  will  be 
lacking  in  the  special  knowledge  which  is  necessary  to  make 
a  success  of  city  planning.  Although  the  laying  out  of  the 
ground  plan  is  highly  important,  there  must  also  be  con- 
sidered the  problem  of  lighting,  traffic,  sewage,  and  sewage 
disposal,  gas  and  water  supply,  police  and  fire  alarm  systems, 
waterways,  harbors,  railroad  terminals,  and  other  trans- 
portation facilities  and  the  other  numerous  and  complex 
features  which  are  indispensable  to  a  well-ordered  city  plan. 
In  no  undertaking,  indeed,  are  the  services  of  the  expert 
more  essential  than  in  the  planning  of  a  city  and  nowhere 
does  technical  experience  prove  more  profitable. 

In  the  laying  out  of  the  plan  of  a  small  city,  the  principal 
factors  to  be  considered  are  the  location,  the  configuration  of 
the  land  on  which  the  city  is  to  be  built  and  the  kinds  of 
activity  which  are  likely  to  characterize  the  city  in  the 
future. 

The  sites  of  many  towns  are  selected  in  the  knowledge 
that  a  place  of  importance  is  to  be  founded  and  in  such  in- 
stances, as  was  the  case  with  Washington  and  Buffalo  and 
more  recently  with  Gary,  Ind.,  and  other  towns  compre- 
hensive plans  were  adopted  and  the  city  placed  in  the 
most  advantageous  location.  Most  towns,  however,  have 
their  sites  selected  by  accident  by  some  early  settler,  though 
many  are  located  by  real  estate  promoters.  The  sites  of 
numerous  cities  of  the  future  are  of  course  as  yet  unoccu- 
pied fields,  so  that  it  would  be  desirable  for  each  state  or 
territorial  government  to  establish  a  civic  commission  which 
should  have  such  supervising  powers  as  would  enable  it 
to  locate  sites  for  new  cities  in  the  most  desirable  places 
and  to  discourage  the  starting  of  cities  at  such  locations 
as  would   not   be   best  suited  to  public  policy. 

Towns  which  have  arisen  on  sites  selected  by  accident 


PLANNING   OF   GROWING  TOWNS 


301 


must  in  most  cases  make  the  best  of  their  locations,  though 
by  proper  regulation  their  growth  may  be  stimulated  in 
certain  directions  so  that  disadvantages  of  site  may  be 
partially  overcome,  and  wherever  possible  such  a  course 
should  naturally  be  followed.  The  services  of  an  experi- 
enced city  designer  are  especially  useful  to  such  a  town. 

The  site  of  a  town  having  been  fixed,  whether  by 
accident  or  design,  the  configuration  of  the  land  must  be 
considered   in   order  that  the  movements  of  traffic  may  en- 


Fig.  77.   proposed  extension  and  suburban  colony  at 
ahrensfelde,  berlin 

counter  the  smallest  possible  resistance.  On  a  level  plain 
the  town  may  be  planned  freely,  but  if  the  site  be  hilly 
or  on  a  river  or  with  other  natural  features  the  plan  must 
be  so  adapted  that  they  will  not  prove  detrimental.  Such 
features  may  indeed  often  be  utilized  to  enhance  not  only 
the  general  effect  of  the  town,  in  aesthetic  sense,  but  also  to 
improve  its  traffic  facilities  and  to  increase  its  commercial 
possibilities.  Various  other  factors  must  be  considered,  such 
for  example  as  in  the  laying  out  of  a  manufacturing  center, 
the  prevailing  winds,  its  location  being  such  that  smoke 
and  gases  are  carried  away  from  the  remainder  of  the  city. 


302  CITY   PLANNING  AND   MAINTENANCE 

A  multiplicity  of  details  thus  enter  into  the  design  of  a  city 
and  none  of  them  must  be  neglected. 

The  purposes  for  which  a  town  is  planned  also  greatly 
affect  its  design,  as  a  wide  diversity  of  uses  is  apparent. 
Towns  may  be  variously  classified  as  maritime,  manufactur- 
ing, commercial,  administrative  and  educational,  and  a  town 
which  is  destined  to  be  a  seaport  of  importance  should,  of 
course,  be  planned  along  different  lines  from  the  town 
which  is  to  be  a  manufacturing  center,  while  the  commercial 
town,  which  is  a  place  of  barter  and  exchange,  requires  a  very 
different  layout  from  the  town  which  is  the  capital  of  a 
state  or  the  college  town  which  is  the  seat  of  learning  but 
which  is  to  have  no  other  activity  of  moment. 

Whatever  the  uses  to  which  the  town  is  to  be  put,  its 
design  should  always  be  well  worked  out  from  an  engineering 
standpoint,  and  when  this  is  done,  the  small  town  proves 
more  healthful  and  desirable  as  a  place  of  business  and 
residence  than  the  large  city.  Skyscrapers  not  being  per- 
mitted, business  is  less  congested  and  offices  are  lighter  and 
placed  to  better  advantage,  while  for  residential  purposes 
there  is  room  for  detached  houses  and  lawns  and  air  and 
light  are  pure  and  abundant. 

The  small  city,  however,  which  grows  up  without  a 
plan  and  without  engineering  improvements  possesses  no 
such  advantages,  and  lack  especially  of  proper  sanitary 
engineering  may  make  it  actually  dangerous  as  a  place  of 
residence,  while  aesthetically  it  is  likely  to  be  as  ugly  on 
a  small  scale  as  the  big  town  is  on  a  large  scale. 

It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  every  small  town  should 
have  a  well-considered  plan,  and  that  little  by  little,  as  it 
expands,  its  growth  should  be  along  the  lines  laid  out,  as 
it  will  thus  accomplish  the  greatest  results  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  civic  effort  and  its  growth  will  be  stimulated 
rather  than  obstructed. 

It  is  not  a  matter  of  much  difficulty  or  of  great  expense 
for  the  small  town  to  provide  itself  with  a  suitable  plan. 
A  little  initiative  on  the  part  of  a  few  prominent  citizens 
in  bringing  the  subject  before  the  public,  a  discussion  of  it 


PLANNING  OF  GROWING  TOWNS  303 

in  the  papers,  and  in  meetings  held  for  the  purpose,  the 
organization  of  a  civic  improvement  association,  and  the 
appropriation  of  a  small  sum  by  the  town  or  its  donation 
by  public-spirited  citizens  and  the  engagement  of  a  qualified 
civic  engineer  will  place  the  town  on  the  path  of  progress 
and  determine  its  growth  in  the  most  advantageous  manner. 
The  starting  of  such  a  movement  is  nothing  less  than  a 
public  duty,  and  one  which  proves  pleasant  and  profitable 
both  in  initiation  and  performance. 


APPENDIX  A 

CO-OPERATION   OF  ENGINEER 
AND  ARCHITECT  IN   CITY  PLANNING  C) 

The  present  is  a  time  of  renaissance  in  the  art  of  city  planning 
and  in  future  epochs  it  will  be  noted  as  marking  the  greatest  ad- 
vances in  the  art  that  have  ever  been  made.  Indeed,  modern  city 
planning  is  not  only  a  renaissance  but  almost  entirely  a  new  birth 
of  the  art,  for  so  many  new  elements  and  conditions  enter  into  con- 
sideration that  the  city  planning  of  to-day  is  a  different  thing  from 
the  city  planning  of  previous  centuries. 

Consider  for  example  the  problems  of  a  Roman  city  planner  of 
the  time  of  the  Caesars,  and  those  to  be  met  by  the  city  planner 
of  a  modern  city.  There  is  in  a  general  way  the  same  aesthetic 
problem  to  be  solved,  but  even  this  is  profoundly  modified  by  mod- 
ern conditions,  while  in  other  respects  entirely  new  conditions  are 
confronted. 

The  Roman  city  planner  did  not  have  to  give  any  thought  to 
railways  or  the  enormous  vehicular  traffic  of  our  city  streets:  auto- 
mobiles and  electric  street  cars  to  him  were  unknown  and  gas  and 
electric  mains  had  not  been  thought  of.  Street  lighting  did  not 
concern  him  and  docks  for  1000  feet  steamers  were  still  far  in  the 
future.  Skyscrapers  housing  from  4000  to  10,000  people  and  750  feet 
in  height  were  undreamed  of  and  elevated  and  subway  traction 
systems  hundreds  of  miles  in  length  gave  him  no  concern.  His  prob- 
lems were,  comparatively  speaking,  simple  and  it  was  quite  unneces- 
sary for  him  to  have  at  his  command  the  great  technical  resources 
'which  must  be  brought  into  service  to-day  for  the  successful  plan- 
ning of  a  city. 

The  great  changes  which  have  come  about  are  the  result  largely 
of  modern  scientific  improvements,  and  the  indispensable  man  to- 
day in  city  planning  is  the  man  who  understands  how  such  improve- 
ments are  to  be  utilized  to  the  best  advantage  to  make  of  the  modern 
city  an  efficient  example  of  what  it  has  become,  a  great  operative 
mechanism  for  the  concentration  of  population  with  its  consequent 
economies,  and  increased  conveniences  and  comforts. 


(')  Author's  address  delivered  before  the  International  Congress  on  City  Plan- 
ning and  City  Maintainence,  at  Ghent,  Belgium,  1913. 


306  APPENDIX 

As  practically  all  of  our  modern  improvements  affecting  the  city 
are  of  an  engineering  nature,  the  part  of  the  engineer  in  city  plan- 
ning —  the  only  person  who  is  capable  of  utilizing  modern  improve- 
ments —  is  consequently  of  co-equal  importance  with  that  of  the 
architect,  a  fact,  however,  which  is  not  recognized  by  the  public 
and  but  scantily  by  the  professions  of  architecture  and  engineering. 

The  engineer  to-day  occupies  a  commanding  position  in  city  plan- 
ning. He  is  the  leader  and  the  innovator.  The  aesthetic  principles 
of  city  planning  were  determined  in  early  ages  and  the  architect 
can  only  work  within  the  limits  of  those  principles.  His  opportu- 
nities, however,  are  multiplied  and  new  problems  originated  for  him 
by  the  engineer,  whose  modern  constructions  in  steel,  iron  and  con- 
crete the  architect  must  embellish  with  his  art. 

The  architect  does  not,  by  any  advance  of  his  art,  give  the  engi- 
neer new  opportunities,  and  call  forth  new  engineering  efforts,  but 
it  is  the  engineer  with  his  advances  who  calls  upon  the  architect 
to  follow  and  render  his  structures  pleasing  with  the  art  whose 
principles   are   ages   old. 

To  this  extent,  the  architect  has  new  aesthetic  problems  to  meet, 
so  that  the  practice  of  the  ancients  avails  him  only  in  the  most 
general  way.  The  elevator,  for  example,  made  possible  very  tall 
buildings  even  before  the  day  of  steel  structures  and  with  such 
buildings,  the  modern  architect  is  called  upon  to  deal.  The  Roman 
architect  had  to  consult  the  inclinations  of  the  tenants  and  so  made 
his  upper  stories  with  low  ceilings,  even  to  the  point  where  the  needy 
poet  could  not  stand  erect  in  his  top  floor  room.  Conditions  thus 
affect  aesthetic  treatment  and  the  height  of  modern  buildings  is, 
of  course,  only  an  example  of  the  many  changes  which  demand  a 
new  aesthetic  technique.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  architect  to  keep 
abreast  of  the  times  and  to  meet  new  things  in  a  new  spirit.  New 
wine  requires  new  bottles,  and  to  achieve  the  proper  results,  the 
architect  should  embody  in  his  structures  the  spirit  of  the  age 
instead  of  leaving  it  to  express  itself  in  spite  of  his  treatment. 

The  skyscraper  and  the  reinforced  concrete  structures,  particularly 
bridges,  will  express,  as  long  as  they  exist,  the  fact  that  they  are 
the  product  of  the  age  of  scientific  progress,  just  as  the  Gothic 
Churches  bear  testimony  to  a  religious  spirit  and  feudal  castles 
evidence  the  then  existing  organization  of  society.  In  order  to  recog- 
nize and  translate  our  conditions  into  the  permanancy  of  architec- 
tural forms,  the  architect  should  co-operate  with  the  engineer  to  the 
fullest  degree  and  should  not  attempt  any  important  work  without 
adequate  engineering  collaboration,  as  otherwise  failure  is  certain 
to  result.  The  architect  may,  of  course,  be  himself  an  engineer, 
or  the  engineer  may  be  an  architect,  but  architecture  and  engineer- 


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CO-OPERATION   IN   CITY   PLANNING  307 

ing  are  both  subjects  of  such  magnitude  and  call  for  such  different 
talents  that  success  is  not  likely  to  be  achieved  in  both  fields  by 
a  single  individual.  The  architect  and  the  public  must  awake  to 
the  fact  that  the  engineer  has  an  enormously  large  and  ever  increas- 
ing part  in  the  scheme  of  modern  life,  and  that  in  city  planning, 
he  occupies  an  indispensable  position,  in  fact,  a  successful  city  could 
be  constructed  by  the  engineer  alone,  while  the  architect  alone 
would  make  a  lamentable  failure  were  he  without  engineering  qual- 
ifications. 

The  modern  city  may  be  considered  in  a  sense  as  a  large  manu- 
facturing plant,  in  which  the  individual  industries  are  related  parts, 
and  in  the  laying  out  of  the  city  this  conception  should  be  the  gov- 
erning factor.  The  city  provides  its  inhabitants  with  a  ready 
means  of  communication  with  each  other,  ready  means  of  exchange 
and  transportation  of  products,  and  storage  and  living  quarters, 
all  of  which  are  steps  in  the  transformation  of  material  from  raw 
to  finished  stages.     The  city  is  in  fact  a  great  factory. 

Accordingly  in  the  building  of  a  city,  its  site  should  be  selected 
and  its  parts  so  placed  in  relation  to  each  other  that  a  result  of  unity 
will  be  obtained,  all  its  components  being  proportioned  to  each  other 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  enable  its  various  operations  and  the  activ- 
ities of  its  citizens  to  be  carried  out  with  the  greatest  economy  of 
effort  and  the  greatest  degree  of  efficiency. 

The  various  civic  activities  which  must  be  taken  thus  into  con- 
sideration and  provided  with  economical  and  efficient  instrumental- 
ities, include  of  course  not  only  manufacturing  industries  but  all 
the  processes  of  the  civic  body,  such  as  trade,  banking,  schooling, 
recreation  and  the  like,  for  it  is  quite  as  necessary  that  school  houses 
be  placed  in  positions  of  advantage,  so  that  the  benefits  of  educa- 
tion may  be  acquired  at  the  least  physical  inconvenience,  as  it  is 
for  factories  to  be  well  placed  for  obtaining  raw  materials,  while 
adequate  and  accessible  recreation  grounds  are  quite  as  important 
as   terminal  facilities. 

Co-ordination  of  these  various  elements  of  civic  construction 
is  another  fundamental  help  in  city  planning.  While  every  element 
must  be  taken  into  consideration,  there  should  be  no  excessive  devo- 
tion to  any  one.  Terminal  facilities  and  manufacturing  sites  thus 
while  they  must  not  be  allowed  to  crowd  out  parks,  should  not, 
on  the  other  hand,  be  sacrificed  to  make  room  for  unnecessary  play- 
grounds. Throughout  there  should  be  the  proper  sense  of  propor- 
tion, and  the  adjustment  of  means  to  ends  which  is  necessary  to 
the  successful  carrying  out  of  the  numerous  activities  of  the  city. 

The  aesthetic  appearance  of  the  city  depends  upon  the  genius 
of  the   architect   and  landscape   designer,   but  in  the   innumerable 


308  APPENDIX 

practical  problems  of  the  city  as  an  operative  mechanism,  the  genius 
of  the  engineer  is  equally  demanded.  The  architect  and  the  engineer 
should  thus  work  together  in  the  planning  of  a  city,  and  be  in  con- 
stant and  well  considered  consultation,  to  the  end  that  the  artistic 
design  may  be  adapted  to  practical  necessities,  and  practical  require- 
ments modified  for  the  benefit  of  aesthetic  results. 

As  practically  all  the  modern  cities  are  dependent  on  heir  manu- 
facturing industries,  in  the  planning  of  a  city  their  proper  location 
is  accordingly  paramount.  In  the  laying  out  of  a  new  city,  the 
selection  of  a  suitable  site  will  solve  most  of  the  important  problems 
but  as  cities  on  virgin  sites  are  but  seldom  called  into  existence, 
and  as  consequently  the  greater  part  of  city  planning  is  concerned 
with  the  laying  out  of  additions  to  old  cities  and  rebuilding  of  built 
up  sections,  the  location  of  factories  must  be  carried  out  with  regard 
to  existing  condition,  rather  than  in  what  might  be  the  most  ideal 
manner  on  a  clear  site.  Numerous  questions  will  enter  into  consid- 
eration among  the  most  important  being  transportation  facilities, 
accessibility  to  workers,  and  the  sources  of  power  and  degree  of 
nuisance  created  by  the  operations  of  the  factory  itself.  Thus  in 
a  small  city  in  which  fine  woodwork  is  the  principal  industry,  and 
in  which  electrically  transmitted  power  is  available,  the  factories 
may  be  located  with  little  regard  to  the  element  of  nuisance,  as 
noises  and  the  transportation  of  materials  will  be  the  only  nuisances, 
but  in  a  large  city  where  the  principal  industries  are  foundries, 
smelting  works  and  iron  manufacturing  and  where  coal  is  used,  the 
laying  out  of  the  factory  districts  must  take  into  consideration  ex- 
penses of  transportation  of  raw  and  finished  materials,  cost  of  land, 
accessibility  and  the  question  of  nuisance,  and  in  the  case  of  chemical 
works,  dangerous  nuisance,  such  as  the  filling  of  the  air  with  noxious 
fumes  and  the  fouling  of  streams  with  waste  products.  Under  such 
circumstances,  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  winds  will  often  be  an 
important  factor  while  drainage  and  the  location  of  workingmen's 
homes  must  also  be  considered. 

In  problems  of  this  kind,  it  is  obvious  that  the  landscape  designer 
and  the  architect  will  be  at  a  disadvantage  and  that  the  engineer 
with  his  technical  experience  will  be  best  fitted  to  deal  with  the  con- 
ditions. Any  attempt  therefore  to  lay  out  a  city  without  the  co- 
operation of  the  engineer  must  result  in  undesirable  conditions, 
which  will  become  magnified  and  irremediable  with  the  growth  of 
the  city. 

Practically  all  cities  are  constantly  paying  in  inconvenience, 
delay  and  congestion  for  the  neglect  of  their  founders  to  properly 
lay  out  their  plans.  In  the  United  States,  of  all  its  large  cities, 
Washington  and  Buffalo  are  alone  in  having  been  planned  to  meet 


CO-OPERATION   IN   CITY   PLANNING  309 

the  requirements  of  the  traffic  which  has  now  developed.  Most 
American  cities  suffer  from  congestion  which  cannot  be  remedied 
except  at  great  expense  and  cities  comparatively  small  in  size  but 
which  are  growing  rapidly  and  which  will  in  the  nature  of  the  case 
become  large  cities  in  the  future  are  neglecting  golden  opportuni- 
ties to  lay  out  proper  plans  now  while  it  is  still  possible  at  little  cost. 

When,  however,  a  city  has  grown  to  large  size  and  traffic  too 
great  for  its  streets,  as  they  exist,  has  developed,  it  becomes  neces- 
sary either  to  widen  the  streets,  cut  through  new  ones  or  adopt 
some  special  form  of  construction  to  increase  the  traffic  carrying 
capacity  of  the  streets. 

Such  special  forms  of  construction  include  subways,  elevated 
roads,  service  tunnels,  freight  subways  and  underground  streets. 
Structures  of  this  kind,  while  of  a  purely  engineering  character, 
should  nevertheless  not  be  constructed  by  the  engineer  without  the 
assistance  of  an  architect  as  a  co-operator. 

Commonly  the  engineer  proceeds  with  such  works,  having  in 
view  only  the  utilitarian  objects  to  be  achieved.  He  does  not  hes- 
itate to  ffil  a  street  with  an  elevated  structure  utterly  devoid  of  any 
aesthetic  quality,  while  entrances  to  subways  are  usually  inartistic 
and  the  stations  of  such  roads  seldom  have  anything  more  to  recom- 
mend them  than  a  little  glazed  tiling. 

The  keeping  of  a  street  as  clear  as  possible  is  one  of  the  first 
principles  of  civic  aesthetics,  and  no  auxiliary  structure  of  any  kind 
should  be  erected  except  under  circumstances  of  the  greatest  neces- 
sity. When  it  must  be  built,  however,  no  pains  should  be  spared 
to  make  it  as  pleasing  an  addition  as  possible  to  the  ensemble  of 
the  street,  and  the  engineer  should  not  be  permitted  to  proceed  with 
it  until  it  has  the  sanction  of  some  competent  aesthetic  authority. 
Unless  the  engineer  has  the  requisite  architectural  skill,  which  is 
seldom  the  case,  he  should  invariably  retain  an  architect  familiar 
with  the  proper  treatment  of  such  structures,  as  otherwise  a  dis- 
pleasing if  not  an  offensive  encumbrance  will  be  added  to  the  street. 

Streets  should  not  only  be  kept  clear  of  permanent  structures, 
but  they  should  not  be  continually  torn  up  for  temporary  purposes. 
As  a  means  of  obviating  such  disfigurements,  service  tunnels  are 
highly  desirable  and  are  proving  their  value  in  a  number  of  cities. 
Containing  as  they  do  electric  wiring,  piping  for  gas,  water,  and 
pneumatic  tubes  of  all  kinds  as  well  as  means  of  access  to  the  sewer 
beneath,  there  remains  no  excuse  whatever  for  the  endless  tearing 
up  of  streets  which  is  such  a  frequent  nuisance  in  streets  not  so 
constructed. 

A  city  may  be  said  to  have  two  individualities,  or  to  produce 
two  impressions:    that  created  by  its  appearance  during  the  day 


310  APPENDIX 

and  that  by  its  appearance  at  night.  The  latter  is  likely  to  be  the 
more  picturesque,  and  it  is  not  infrequently  the  impression  by  which 
the  city  is  best  known,  for  the  time  has  long  since  gone  by  when  the 
night  effect  may  be  disregarded,  as  often  the  finest  effects  of  build- 
ings and  sections  are  those  produced  under  illumination.  It  is  thus 
the  duty  of  a  city  to  give  the  most  thorough  consideration  to  the 
question  of  lighting  and  to  have  its  lighting  system  planned  with  as 
much  care  and  attention  as  is  devoted  to  any  other  phase  of  its  design. 

Lighting  should  be  carried  out  by  the  lighting  engineer,  a  spe- 
cialist who  in  addition  to  being  an  engineer,  is  also  an  artist,  capable 
of  arranging  the  illumination  to  the  best  advantage. 

Many  American  cities  have  of  late  years  adopted  the  practice 
of  lighting  streets  by  so-called  tungsteliers  made  up  of  from  three 
to  five  tungsten  lamps,  on  low  posts,  thirteen  to  fifteen  feet  above 
ground,  while  the  posts  are  spaced  from  thirty  to  sixty  feet  apart. 
The  high  power  arc  lamps  hung  at  a  high  elevation,  as  in  European 
practice,  produce  much  finer  artistic  effects  as  well  as  being  much 
more  economical. 

Among  the  basic  and  fundamental  functions  of  a  city,  there  is 
none  of  greater  importance  than  that  of  water  supply.  However 
beautiful  and  attractive  a  city  may  be  made,  if  it  runs  a  befouled  and 
death  dealing  fluid  through  its  watermains,  it  is  but  a  whitened 
sepulchre  and  a  mockery.  Murder  by  wholesale  is  the  result,  and 
a  list  of  victims  which  would  fill  many  volumes  could  be  compiled 
of  those  who  have  died  from  diseases  arising  out  of  the  negligence 
of  the  cities  in  which  they  were  compelled  to  live;  if  indeed  the  sup- 
plying of  diluted  filth  instead  of  water  may  be  termed  negligence. 

No  city  without  a  water  purifying  system  unless  it  has  a  source 
of  naturally  pure  water  can  in  reality  have  any  claims  to  being  con- 
sidered a  civilized  place  of  residence,  yet  American  cities  while  they 
spend  millions  on  pumping  plants,  spend  httle  for  purification. 
An  evidence  of  the  fear  in  which  the  water  of  many  American  cities 
is  held  is  shown  by  the  numerous  and  highly  prosperous  so-called 
spring  water  companies,  which  sell  water  in  5  gallon  bottles  delivered 
to  the  consumer. 

The  amount  of  money  spent  by  the  individual  members  of  the 
public  of  any  large  city  for  such  water  would  undoubtedly  suffice 
for  a  purification  plant  for  the  whole  water  supply  of  the  city. 

The  water  supply  system  of  a  city  should  be  utilized  in  the  de- 
sign of  the  city  to  produce  aesthetic  effects,  being  particularly  well- 
adapted  for  such  purposes. 

In  many  cities,  water  towers  of  a  highly  ornamental  character 
may  be  erected,  constructed  of  re-inforced  concrete,  steel  or  masonry, 
adding  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  city.     Wherever  possible  such 


CO-OPERATION   IN   CITY   PLANNING  311 

towers  should  be  erected  instead  of  the  unsightly  steel  towers  or 
stand  pipes  so  commonly  put  up. 

Cities  which  draw  their  supply  of  water  from  distant  water 
sheds  may  find  it  of  advantage  to  conduct  it  through  an  aqueduct 
which  when  led  across  valleys  offers  great  opportunities  for  effec- 
tive architectural  treatment.  A  surplus  of  water  may  be  drawn 
from  the  water  shed  to  be  used  at  some  selected  point  forming  an 
artificial  cascade  and  waterfalls,  while  a  high  road  may  be  built  on 
the   aqueduct. 

Where  water  is  supplied  from  sources  requiring  pumping  stations, 
these  should  be  of  well  designed  monumental  character.  In  the  city 
itself,  as  an  architectural  symbol  of  the  water  supply  system,  there 
should  be  erected  monumental  terminal  fountains.  These  should 
be  either  in  the  form  of  geysers  or  cascades  which  are  suscep- 
tible of  a  high  degree  of  architectural  ornamentation. 

In  Rome,  the  terminal  fountains  of  Aqua  Paola  and  the  Fontana 
Trevi;  and  in  Marseilles,  the  fountain  of  the  Palais  Long  Champ 
are  excellent  examples  while  other  cities  abound  in  similar  works 
in  modern  style. 

A  well  known  monumental  water  tower  is  that  at  Mannheim, 
Germany,  in  which  the  tower  is  utilized  as  an  ornamental  structure 
in  the  center  of  the  city,  surrounded  by  parking  and  fountains. 

While  city  water  supply  systems  are  strictly  engineering  proposi- 
tions, it  will  be  seen  that  opportunity  is  afforded  for  utilizing  the 
art  of  the  architect  and  in  addition  that  of  the  sculptor  in  symbol- 
izing the  city's  possessions  and  the  means  of  supplying  its  citizens 
with  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  the  necessities  of  life:   water. 

Practically  every  large  city  in  the  world  is  a  city  of  important 
waterways.  Ordinarily  viewed  as  an  adjunct  to  a  city's  commerce, 
its  waterways,  however,  will  be  found  in  almost  every  case,  if  not  the 
chief  reason  for  its  existence,  to  be  a  factor  of  the  first  importance 
in  its  progress. 

-  Cities  which  neglect  their  waterways  fall  behind  in  growth  and 
prestige,  and  those  that  improve  their  harbor  facilities  forge  ahead, 
in  many  instances,  with  wonderful  strides. 

The  question  of  harbor  improvements  is  thus  one  of  the  greatest 
importance,  in  connection  with  city  planning,  and  it  deserves  the 
most  careful  consideration  of  those  in  authority  and  the  support  of 
all  classes  of  citizens.  Cities  having  great  natural  advantages  must 
keep  their  equipment  up-to-date,  while  cities  with  limited  natural 
facilities  may,  by  well  designed  improvements,  lift  themselves  into 
positions  of  the  first  consequence,  as  many  European  cities  have 
done  in  recent  years,  coming  into  successful  competition  with  exist- 
ing ports. 


312  APPENDIX 

As  the  principal  purpose  of  a  harbor  is  to  furnish  a  means  of 
transference  of  freight  between  inland  and  seagoing  carriers,  the 
harbor  which  affords  the  cheapest  and  most  expeditious  means  c 
transference  will  attract  the  greatest  patronage,  provided  its  loca- 
tion is  not  such  as  to  be  a  handicap.  Vessels  do  not  seek  so  much 
a  spacious  harbor  as  they  do  one  in  which  they  may  quickly  dis- 
charge their  cargoes  and  reload,  at  small  expense,  so  that  a  city, 
by  the  erection  of  a  breakwater,  the  dredging  of  a  creek  or  riv  ■ 
and  the  construction  of  modern  docks  laid  with  railroad  track.- 
permitting  cars  to  be  brought  alongside  the  vessels,  and  fitted  with 
the  latest  facilities  and  mechanisms  for  loading  and  unloading, 
will  be  in  a  more  advantageous  position  than  a  city  in  which  the 
natural  harbor  is  better  but  in  which  modern  systems  have  not  been 
installed. 

The  commerce  of  a  maritime  city  is  composed  of  freight  handled 
by  inland  carriers,  such  as  railroads,  river  steamers,  canal  boats  and 
other  forms  of  transportation,  and  coastwise  and  overseas  freight, 
and  in  addition,  the  products  of  its  own  factories. 

The  arriving  freight  is  for  four  principal  purposes;  immediate 
transshipment,  storage  for  later  shipment,  material  for  the  city's 
manufactures,  or  goods  for  consumption  in  the  city  itself.  The 
facilities  of  the  city  should,  therefore,  be  planned  so  that  the  freight 
for  each  of  such  purposes  is  handled  in  a  different  manner.  Freight 
intended  for  immediate  transshipment  from  cars  to  vessels,  or  vice 
versa,  should  be  handled  in  piers  laid  with  railroad  tracks,  equipped 
with  loading  and  unloading  appliance  so  that  the  cargoes  may  be 
transferred  with  as  little  intervention  of  labor  as  possible,  and  with 
the  greatest  speed. 

In  addition  to  the  engineering  features  of  harbor  improvements 
the  general  aesthetic  effect  of  the  docks  and  environs  of  a  city  should 
be  such  as  to  add  rather  than  detract  from  its  appearance,  for  cities 
which  are  sea  ports  offer  large  opportunities  for  the  working  out  of 
interesting  features,  and  the  sea  wall  may  be  varied  with  parks, 
docks,  terminals,  gateways  and  the  like. 

Water  approaches  with  sea  gates  or  landing  piers  may  often  with 
advantage  be  made  an  integral  part  of  a  city's  plan,  with  broad 
avenues  or  boulevards  leading  to  the  civic  center  or  other  terminal 
features  of  the  city's  plan. 

Sea  gates  should  be  made  of  a  monumental  character,  and  sea 
walls  and  other  structures  should  be  of  a  permanent  and  well  de- 
signed character.  Piers  facing  streets  should  be  in  the  proper  archi- 
tectural spirit  and  in  construction  should  be  of  a  fire  proof  nature. 
It  is  usually  desirable  to  run  boulevards  parallel  to  the  water  fronts, 
with  a  narrow  park  along  the  whole  front,  thus  providing  a  con- 


10 


BRIDGli    IN    JAMES    I'AHK,    MADISON,    N.  J. 


BRIDGE    NEAR     HAIGHT     STREET     ENTRANCi;,     GOLDEN     GATE     PARK 

SAN    FRANCISCO 


Inlercslini/  examples  of  park  bridges 


CO-OPERATION   IN   CITY  PLANNING  313 

venient  place  for  recreation  along  the  water,  usually  the  most  agree- 
able part  of  the  city,  but  too  often  taken  up  for  business  purposes. 

Recreation  piers  should  also  be  built  in  sufficient  numbers  and 
reached  through  riverside  parks.  In  many  cases,  however,  cities 
have  surrendered  their  riverside  park  sites  to  business  purposes, 
the  residential  districts  being  driven  back  to  the  land  districts. 

Water  fronts  should  be  reserved  for  park  purposes  instead  of  being 
taken  up  for  railroad  tracks,  storage  yards  and  other  accumulations, 
for  since  railroads  haulage  in  cities  is  to-day  largely  by  electric 
locomotives,  the  railroads,  if  they  must  run  along  the  water  front, 
may  be  put  in  tunnels  which  will  leave  space  for  parks. 

Water  front  improvements  thus  offer  almost  unlimited  oppor- 
tunities to  both  the  architect  and  engineer,  although  too  often  the 
work  is  handled  by  the  engineer  with  no  attempt  whatever  to  em- 
body any  aesthetic  features.  The  conspicuous  position  of  water 
front  improvements  makes  it  especially  desirable  that  they  should 
be  treated  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  an  embellishment  rather  than  a 
disfigurement  of  the  civic  entity. 

Of  even  greater  prominence  in  the  city's  ensemble,  and  conse- 
quently demanding  most  urgently  the  proper  aesthetic  treatment, 
are  bridges.  Nevertheless  it  has  been  the  practice  almost  wholly 
in  America  to  neglect  this  phase  of  bridge  construction,  with  results 
of  the  most  unfortunate  character.  Vast  numbers  of  bridges  exist 
which  make  no  pretentions  whatever  to  being  anything  but  purely 
utilitarian  structures. 

This  is  particularly  to  be  deplored  when  such  bridges  are  the 
entrances  to  cities,  for  the  whole  artistic  scheme  of  the  city  is  un- 
favorably affected.  No  single  part  of  the  plan  of  a  city,  with  the 
exception  of  the  civic  center,  is  of  greater  importance  than  its 
bridges. 

The  civic  center  may  be  likened  to  the  main  hallway  of  a  build- 
ing and  the  bridge  to  the  portals.  Often  the  first  impression  of  a 
cfty  and  frequently  most  lasting  one  is  gained  from  a  bridge  and  as 
the  entrance  to  the  city  it  should  be  treated  with  the  dignity  it 
deserves,  and  be  made  a  feature  of  the  city's  plan,  rather  than  a 
mere  encroachment  of  a  utilitarian  nature. 

A  bridge  should  be  constructed,  aesthetically,  from  three  prin- 
cipal points  of  view;  the  bridge  in  itself,  the  bridge  in  its  relation 
to  its  approaches,  and  the  whole  effect  of  the  bridge  and  its 
approaches  in  relation  to  its  environment. 

In  its  design  it  should  be  regarded  as  an  integral  part  of  the  city's 
plan  and  it  should  be  located  in  reference  to  the  whole  plan  of  the 
city  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  the  most  efficient  and  pleasing  re- 
sults.    A  bridge  may  for  example  serve  as  a  terminal  or  focal  of  an 


314  APPENDIX 

important  avenue  or  for  several  converging  avenues,  full  advantage 
thus  being  taken  of  its  architectural  importance. 

Its  location  being  determined  the  bridge  itself  should  be  of  such 
a  design  as  to  meet  in  the  most  direct  and  practicable  manner  the 
conditions  it  will  be  called  upon  to  fulfill,  and  its  approaches  should 
be  of  such  a  character  as  to  enhance  its  value,  rather  than  as  is  so 
often  the  case  of  such  a  character  as  to  detract  if  not  ruin  its  entire 
effect. 

In  order  to  achieve  the  proper  results  it  is  necessary  for  the  en- 
gineer to  co-operate  with  the  architect  in  the  design  of  the  bridge 
and  its  approaches  and  with  the  city  planner  or  civic  architect  in 
its  relations  to  the  plan  of  the  city  as  a  whole.  Unless  this  is  done 
bridges  will  be  ugly,  misplaced  and  ill  suited  to  their  purposes. 

Numerous  contributory  causes,  however,  in  addition  to  the  lack 
of  co-operation  between  engineer  and  architect  go  to  furnish  the 
inartistic  effect  so  prevalent  in  American  bridges,  among  which 
are  absence  of  governmental  supervision,  necessity  of  keeping  cost 
at  the  minimum,  legal  hindrances,  haste  in  construction,  undue 
competition  and  use  of  contractors'  plans  or  of  one  set  of  standard 
plans  for  numbers  of  bridges,  imitation  of  railroad  bridges  for  other 
places  and  the  absence  of  any  well  settled  forms  for  the  artistic 
treatment  of  iron  construction. 

The  last  named  reason  is  one  of  considerable  importance,  since 
like  skyscrapers,  modern  metal  bridges  are  a  recent  structural  form 
and  there  has  not  as  yet  been  time  nor  talent  enough  given  to  the 
subject  to  develop  a  satisfactory  architectural  treatment.  In  this 
quarter,  however,  American  designers  have  much  to  learn  from 
European  practice  and  examples,  as  the  problem  of  bridges  of  artistic 
construction  is  being  solved  with  splendid  results. 

In  the  aesthetic  design  of  a  bridge,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  bridge  is  a  work  of  architectural  art  and  that  as  such  it  should 
conform,  in  its  own  field,  with  the  general  principles  of  artistic 
design. 

The  first  principle  is  that  of  unity.  The  bridge  with  its  ap- 
proaches should  produce  the  impression  of  being  a  single  homogeneous 
structure.  It  should  also  show  appropriateness  to  its  surroundings. 
It  should  be  symmetrical,  harmonious  in  proportion,  simple,  obvious 
in  the  relation  of  its  structure  to  its  purposes,  economical  in  the 
use  of  material  and  embellished  without  overornamentation. 

With  the  bridge  itself  constructed  in  accordance  with  such  prin- 
ciples, its  approaches  should  be  treated  in  a  similar  spirit,  and  made 
to  add  to  the  dignity  and  effect  of  the  bridge.  A  plaza  suitably 
laid  out  is  almost  a  necessity  for  a  bridge  of  any  size,  while  a  suit- 
able view  of  the  bridge  as  it  is  approached  is  another. 


CO-OPERATION   IN   CITY   PLANNING  315 

The  terminal  plaza  may  even  with  good  results  be  a  park  of 
some  size,  suitably  laid  out  and  embellished,  and  the  bridge  thus 
be  given  the  benefit  of  a  most  favorable  approach. 

In  the  only  civic  feature  of  American  cities  which  surpasses 
anything  which  the  continent  has  to  offer,  the  skyscraper,  an  ex- 
ample is  seen  of  the  excellent  results  of  the  co-operation  of  engineer 
and  architect.  It  is  practically  the  only  instance  in  which,  by  the 
nature  of  the  case,  they  have  been  forced  to  co-operate,  and  though 
the  skyscraper  is  an  infant  among  structural  forms  it  has  already 
reached  a  high  degree  of  engineering  and  architectural  development. 
Although  only  a  single  generation  of  architects  has  had  the  oppor- 
tunity of  dealing  with  the  skyscraper  problem  excellent  results  have 
been  obtained,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  as  from  time  to 
time  architectural  geniuses  arise,  the  architectural  results  will  be 
greatly  improved.  The  engineering  problems  of  skyscrapers  were 
solved  in  a  few  years  and  practically  nothing  remains  to  be  done  in 
that  field. 

The  skyscraper,  however,  while  successful  as  an  individual  struc- 
ture, is  a  great  failure  in  other  respects. 

Owing  to  its  great  cost  it  does  not  as  a  rule  pay  over  four  per 
cent  on  the  investment  and  often  not  more  than  two  per  cent, 
yet  though  not  a  financial  success  it  usually  decreases  the  rental 
value  of  adjacent  structures  which  are  unable  to  compete  in  attrac- 
tiveness  and   convenience   with   it. 

It  sets  a  high  standard  of  office  accommodation  and  business  firms 
in  order  to  maintain  their  prestige  must  occupy  offices  in  the  sky- 
scrapers at  an  increased  expense  which  brings  no  return.  It  is  thus 
unprofitable  to  tenants,  owners  and  neighbors. 

In  addition  it  creates  street  congestion  and  congestion  of  trans- 
portation, compels  the  larger  part  of  its  occupants  to  work  in  arti- 
ficially lighted  rooms,  and  to  take  long  daily  journeys  to  and  from 
work.  By  concentrating  business  in  one  quarter  it  prevents  the 
development  of  other  sections  of  the  city  which  remain  filled  with 
old  and  dilapidated  structures. 

The  erection  of  skyscrapers  has  been  considered  by  continental 
cities  and  official  reports  have  been  made  on  the  results  achieved 
in  New  York.  Among  the  reports  was  one  to  which  some  promi- 
nence was  given  and  it  was  unfavorable  to  skyscrapers  for  the  reason 
of  fire  risks  enhanced  by  the  draughts  of  elevator  shafts.  This 
report,  however,  was  in  error,  since  the  fire  risk  is  almost  negli- 
gible. 

The  skyscrapers  are  practically  fireproof,  since  rooms  have  been 
burned  out  far  above  the  street  level  without  damage  to  adjoining 
rooms  or  to  the  structure  as  a  whole.     It  is  quite  unlikely  that 


316  APPENDIX 

a  modern  skyscraper  of  the  present  type  will  ever  be  destroyed 
by  fire,  as  the  engineering  features  are  so  highly  developed  as  to 
make  this  almost  impossible.  The  principal  real  objections  to  sky- 
scrapers have  been  stated,  and  there  can  be  no  question  that  they 
are  an  undesirable  addition  to  a  city. 

The  effect  of  engineering  progress  on  the  growth  of  modern  cities 
is  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  age.  The  cheapness,  convenience  and 
celerity  of  passenger  and  freight  transportation  and  particularly  of 
electric  traction,  has  made  possible  a  much  vaster  civic  growth  than 
could  have  taken  place  in  former  ages.  Cities  tend  to  grow  to  what 
may  be  termed  the  point  of  saturation,  that  is  the  desirability  of 
residence  in  cities  is  so  much  appreciated  that  the  population  of  a 
country  gravitates  to  a  city  until  the  crowded  conditions  become  so 
onerous  as  to  automatically  check  further  growth  Rapid  transit 
has  in  the  last  generation  greatly  raised  the  limit  of  saturation  so 
that  there  appears  now  to  be  no  reason  why  cities  may  not  grow 
in  size  to  ten  or  twenty  millions  before  conditions  will  become  such 
as  to  make  residence  in  smaller  places  or  in  the  country  more 
attractive. 

The  principal  factor  which  checks  the  growth  of  cities  is  the  cost 
of  living,  for  with  increased  population  comes  the  necessity  of  in- 
creased expenditure  for  civic  improvements.  Thus  New  York  is 
spending  $300,000,000  for  new  subways,  $200,000,000  for  additional 
water  supply  and  over  $100,000,000  for  docks,  a  total  of  over  $600- 
000,000  for  only  three  items.  This  means  an  interest  charge,  at 
four  per  cent,  of  $24,000,000,  which  amounts  to  $25  a  year  in  tax- 
ation for  a  family  of  five,  to  say  nothing  of  sinking  fund  charges, 
and  this  is  in  addition  to  the  great  burdens  of  taxation  already  borne 
for  other  expenses.  New  York  even  now  contains  only  small  indus- 
tries and  many  of  these  are  leaving  the  city,  drawn  away  by  more 
favorable  conditions  found  elsewhere,  a  drift  which  will  tend  to  make 
New  York  purely  a  commercial  and  financial  center  as  these  are 
activities  which  are  transacted  on  a  large  scale  in  small  quarters  and 
with  employees  highly  enough  paid  to  find  existence  possible  in  the 
city. 

Civic  growth  is  thus  automatically  checked,  but  further,  owing 
to  legislative  action  a  so-called  debt  limit  has  been  fixed  which  pre- 
vents the  city  borrowing  for  its  improvements  more  than  a  certain 
proportion  of  its  assessed  valuation.  While  this  prevents  ultimate 
bankruptcy,  it  also  prevents  the  city  from  raising  funds  for  many 
needed  improvements  and  in  turn  causes  stagnation  of  business,  which 
is  drawn  away  to  cities  capable  of  supplying  the  necessary  facilities 
through  being  less  heavily  burdened  by  taxation. 

A  consideration  of  these  various  factors  discloses  the  enormous 


INTERIOR    OF    ELEVATED    STATION,    BERLIN 


INTERIOR    OF    SIBWAV    STATION,    BERLIN 


TIVOLI    HYDRO-ELIiClHlC    I'LANT 

For  supplying   Rome   with   electric   current.     The   artijicial  waterfall  and  apparently 

antique  aqueduct  constructed  to  attract  visitors 


CO-OPERATION   IN   CITY   PLANNING  317 

influence  which  engineering  is  having  upon  society.  It  presents 
new  problems  not  only  to  the  architect,  but  to  the  financier  and 
legislator  as  well  and  their  utmost  endeavors  are  necessary  to  so 
adjust  conditions  as  to  be  able  to  take  advantage  of  the  great 
progress  of  engineering  science. 


APPENDIX  B 
THE   EXECUTIVE   MANAGEMENT   OF  A   CITY 

Success  in  city  planning  is  proven  by  the  subsequent  results  of 
city  operation.  Convenience,  adequate  transit  facilities,  proper  dis- 
tribution of  traffic,  avoidance  of  congestion  and  all  the  various  factors 
entering  into  the  operation  and  maintenance  of  a  city  are  constantly 
demonstrating  the  value  of  the  city's  plan. 

It  follows  that  the  city  planner  must  be  thoroughly  familiar  with 
all  of  the  various  results  to  be  achieved  by  the  city's  plan  and  he  must 
understand  not  only  the  artistic  side  of  city  planning  but  every  detail 
of  the  operation  and  maintenance  of  the  city  in  order  that  the  plan 
may  be  a  success  economically  as  well  as  artistically. 

A  city,  however,  which  has  been  successfully  planned  and  has  had 
its  improvements  put  into  operation  by  the  city  planner,  must  in  order 
to  take  advantage  of  its  facilities  place  its  operation  and  maintenance 
under  the  supervision  of  a  man  or  a  body  of  men  who  understand 
and  know  how  to  utilize  the  work  of  the  city  planner. 

Every  principle  and  purpose  of  the  plan  must  be  known  and  every 
phase  of  its  development  understood,  for  the  inadequate  utilization 
of  the  city's  plan  is  as  bad  as  if  the  city  planner  had  not  planned  the 
city  suitably. 

To  secure  proper  administrative  results  is  a  difficult  civic  under- 
taking, but  of  recent  years  a  system  has  been  evolved  which  seems 
destined  to  revolutionize  city  administration  and  which  promises  to 
enable  cities  to  obtain  proper  administrative  results. 

The  system,  that  of  commission  government,  has  taken  the  place 
of  the  old  aldermanic  system  in  some  350  cities.  Five  commissioners 
are  elected  who  have  both  legislative  and  executive  powers  and  who 
have  entire  charge  of  the  city's  affairs.  They  are  elected  by  the  voters 
as  a  single  body,  the  old  division  of  wards  being  discontinued. 

This  form  of  government  centering  responsibility  in  five  men  is 
proving  very  efficient  and  promises  to  entirely  supersede  the  old 
aldermanic  method.  A  modification  of  it  is  now  coming  into  practice 
since  the  five  commissioners  often  develop  friction  which  shows  itself 
in  the  department  of  which  they  have  charge.  The  new  plan  is  the 
appointment  by  the  commission  of  a  city  manager  who  is  given  com- 
plete executive  authority  under  the  control  of  the  commissioners  who 
sit  as  a  legislative  body. 


EXECUTIVE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  319 

The  effect  of  this  plan  is  practically  that  of  business  corporations, 
the  city  manager  corresponding  to  the  president  of  the  corporation 
and  the  commission  to  the  directors  of  the  corporation. 

Dayton,  Ohio,  is  the  first  large  city  to  put  the  plan  in  operation  and 
the  salary  of  the  city  manager  is  fixed  by  the  commission  at  $12,500 
per  annum. 

The  important  clauses  in  the  Dayton  city  charter  relating  to  the 
office  of  City  Manager  are  as  follows: 

Sec.  47.  The  commission  shall  appoint  a  City  Manager  who  shall  be  the  adminis- 
trative head  of  the  municipal  government  and  shall  be  responsible  for  the  efficient 
administration  of  all  departments.  He  shall  be  appointed  without  regard  to  his  polit- 
ical beliefs  and  may  or  may  not  be  a  resident  of  the  city  of  Dayton  when  appointed. 
He  shall  hold  office  at  the  will  of  the  commission  and  shall  be  subject  to  recall  as  herein 
provided. 

Sec.  48.  Powers  and  duties  of  the  City  Manager.  The  powers  and  duties  of  the 
City  Manager  shall  be: 

(a)   To  see  that  the  laws  and  ordinances  are  enforced. 

(6)  To  appoint  and,  except  as  herein  provided,  remove  all  directors  of  departments 
and  all  subordinate  officers  and  employees  in  the  departments  in  both  the  classified 
and  unclassified  service;  all  appointments  to  be  upon  merit  and  fitness  alone,  and  in 
the  classified  service  all  appointments  and  removals  to  be  subject  to  the  civil  service 
provisions  of  this  charter; 

(c)  To  exercise  control  over  all  departments  and  divisions  created  herein  or  that 
may  be  hereafter  created  by  the  commission; 

(d)  To  attend  all  meetings  of  the  commission,  with  a  right  to  take  part  in  the  dis- 
cussion but  having  no  vote; 

(e)  To  recommend  to  the  commission  for  adoption  such  measures  as  he  may  deem 
necessary  or  expedient; 

(f)  To  keep  the  commission  fully  advised  as  to  the  financial  condition  and  needs 
of  the  city;   and 

(g)  To  perform  such  other  duties  as  may  be  prescribed  by  this  charter  or  be  re- 
quired of  him  by  ordinance  or  resolution  of  the  commission. 

Sec.  49.  Salary.  The  City  Manager  shall  receive  such  salary  as  shall  be  fixed 
by  ordinance  of  the  commission. 

Sec.  50.  Investigations  by  City  Manager.  The  City  Manager  may  without  notice 
cause  the  affairs  of  any  department  or  the  conduct  of  any  officer  or  employee  to  be 
examined.  Any  person  or  persons  appointed  by  the  City  Manager  to  examine  the 
affairs  of  any  department  or  the  conduct  of  any  officer  or  employee  shall  have  the  same 
power  to  compel  the  attendance  of  witnesses  and  the  production  of  books  and  papers 
and  other  evidence,  and  to  cause  witnesses  to  be  punished  for  contempt,  as  is  con- 
ferred upon  the  commission  by  this  charter. 

The  adoption  of  the  City-Manager  plan  by  Dayton  was  made 
possible  by  recent  constitutional  amendments  and  legislative  enact- 
ments which  give  all  Ohio  cities  a  large  measure  of  municipal  home 
rule,  including  the  very  important  privilege  of  framing  their  own 
charters  through  an  elected  board  and  adopting  or  rejecting  such 
charters  by  popular  vote  —  all  without  recourse  to  the  State  legis- 


320  APPENDIX 

lature.     The  Ohio  statute  under  which  Dayton  or  any  other  city  may 
adopt  the  City-Manager  plan  reads  as  follows: 

ARTICLE  IV 

Sec.  8.  City  Manager.  The  council  shall  appoint  a  City  Manager  who  shall  be 
the  administrative  head  of  the  municipal  government  under  the  direction  and  super- 
vision of  the  council  and  who  shall  hold  office  at  the  pleasure  of  the  council. 

Sec.  9.  Duties  City  Manager.  The  duties  of  the  City  Manager  shall  be:  (a) 
to  see  that  the  laws  and  ordinances  are  faithfully  executed;  (b)  to  attend  all  meetings 
of  the  council  at  which  his  attendance  may  be  required  by  that  body;  (c)  to  recommend 
for  adoption  to  the  council  such  measures  as  he  may  deem  necessarj'  or  expedient; 
(d)  to  appoint  all  officers  and  employees  in  the  classified  ser^'ice  of  the  municipality, 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  this  act,  and  of  the  civil  ser\'ice  law;  (e)  to  prepare  and 
submit  to  the  council  such  reports  as  may  be  required  by  that  body,  or  as  he  may  deem 
advisable  to  submit;  (f)  to  keep  the  council  fully  advised  of  the  financial  condition  of 
the  municipality  and  its  future  needs;  (g)  to  prepare  and  submit  to  the  council  a  tenta- 
tive budget  for  the  next  fiscal  year;  (h)  and  to  perform  such  other  duties  as  the  council 
may  determine  by  ordinance  or  resolution. 

Sec.  10.  Salary  of  City  Manager.  The  City  Manager  shall  receive  such  salary 
as  may  be  fixed  by  the  council;  and  before  entering  upon  the  duties  of  this  office  he 
shall  take  the  official  oath  required  by  this  act  and  shall  execute  a  bond  in  favor  of  the 
municipality  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties  in  such  sum  as  may  be  fixed 
by  the  council. 

The  city  of  Dayton  proceeded  wisely  in  the  election  of  a  city  man- 
ager. Political  considerations  were  ignored  and  an  engineer  was  ob- 
tained, who  was  not  even  a  resident  of  the  city,  and  whose  experience 
in  engineering  had  fitted  him  to  meet  both  the  technical  and  executive 
problems  of  the  city. 

The  plan  of  having  a  city  manager  under  the  direction  of  the  com- 
missioners is  one  of  inherent  merit  since  it  eliminates  jealousy  between 
the  members  of  the  commission  and  relieves  them  of  a  great  mass  of 
detail  and  makes  the  commissionerships  attractive  to  men  of  promi- 
nence, since  they  are  not  compelled  to  sacrifice  their  business  interests 
in  becoming  commissioners,  while  the  city  manager  is  free  from  polit- 
ical influences  that  might  affect  the  commissioners  and  can  discharge 
the  duties  of  his  office  as  nearly  without  fear  and  favor  as  such  a 
condition  has  ever  been  attained  under  any  system  of  administration. 

The  city  manager  being  a  salaried  man  with  no  definite  term  of 
office  must  naturally  give  his  best  service  to  the  city  as  the  length  of 
his  term  depends  on  his  abiUty. 

The  city  manager  plan  is  just  as  desirable  and  applicable  to  the 
small  town  as  to  the  large  one,  and  the  following  quotations  from  a 
discussion  of  certain  of  its  phases  by  the  city  manager  of  a  town  of 
5000  are  of  interest. 

"The  preparation  of  the  engineer-manager  should  consist  in  a 
thorough  education  along  the  lines  of  general  engineering  rather  than 


GRAND  STAIRCASE  LEADINC}  TO  THE  STATUE  OF  ST.  GELLERT,  BUDA-PEST 


GARDEN    STAIRCASE,    ROYAL    PALACE,    BUDA-PEST 


FOLNTAIN    OF    NEPTUNE,    FIRENZE 


EXECUTIVE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  CITY  321 

a  knowledge  of  a  few  special  branches.  This  will  make  it  possible 
for  him  to  advise  and  check  up,  in  a  general  way,  every  act  of  the 
engineering  department.  He  should  also  have  an  understanding  of 
values  and  be  able  to  estimate  all  classes  of  construction  and  main- 
tenance work,  be  economical  and  able  to  establish  systems  of  record- 
keeping and  cost  data  and  have  a  general  conception  of  business 
methods  and  finances.  In  addition  to  this,  he  should  possess  an 
understanding  of  the  city's  sanitary  and  social  conditions.  These 
include  street  cleaning  and  garbage  disposal,  water  supply,  sanitary 
sewer  system,  drainage  system,  the  working  and  living  quarters  of 
every  class  of  people,  the  transportation  facilities  and  numerous  other 
items. 

"The  principal  waste  of  city  funds  comes  from  lack  of  knowledge. 
This  is  most  often  conspicuous  in  the  engineering  department,  and 
since  the  great  majority  of  the  city's  business  is  of  an  engineering 
nature  this  makes  up  the  greatest  waste.  This  is  positively  true  of 
towns  which  are  believed  to  be  too  small  to  need  an  engineer  the  year 
around.  Here  lack  of  knowledge  is  the  principal  reason  for  receiving 
about  75c.  value  on  every  dollar  spent  in  taxes. 

"  If  a  town  or  city  had  some  means  of  figuring  the  money  wasted  in 
prospecting  for  lost  underground  systems,  in  the  improvements  buried 
and  never  found,  in  systems  that  are  built  with  no  idea  of  future 
growth  and  that  have  to  be  abandoned  years  before  they  are  worn 
out,  in  the  grading  and  regrading  of  streets,  in  sinking  hundreds  of 
dollars  into  permanent  culverts  and  waterways  built  with  no  idea  of 
future  drainage  and  that  have  to  be  broken  out  when  pavement  is 
laid,  it  would  be  no  difficult  matter  to  prove  the  economy  of  city  plan- 
ning and  of  proper  management. 

"As  soon  as  a  town  reaches  a  size  which  justifies  permanent  im- 
provements, from  that  time  on  systematic  methods  should  be  carried 
out,  and  a  capable  man  who  is  paid  a  fair  salary  and  feels  permanency 
in  his  position  is  more  apt  to  be  able  to  do  these  things  than  a  council 
or  commission. 

"The  employment  of  an  engineer  as  manager  no  doubt  will  be  con- 
sidered too  expensive,  especially  for  a  small  town.  The  value  of 
the  records  which  it  is  possible  to  keep  under  this  plan  would 
more  than  meet  objection.  But  there  are  several  ways  in  which  an 
income  to  the  city's  general  fund  can  be  realized  by  the  newly  created 
office:  No  matter  how  small  the  town,  all  sewer  work,  plumbing, 
wiring,  water  mains  and  services,  meters,  etc.,  should  be  inspected,  and 
the  small  cost  for  doing  this  should  be  charged  to  the  property  owner. 
Then  there  will  be  the  ordinary  expenses  of  surveying  lot-lines,  giving 
lines  and  grades  for  buildings  and  sidewalks;  these  would  be  charged 
to  the  property  owner  and  turned  into  the  general  fund.     Also,  there 


322  APPENDIX 

will  be  the  usual  engineering  for  sewer  and  water  extensions,  curbs 
and  pavements.  And  finally,  if  the  manager  has  charge  of  the  street 
work  the  street  commissioner's  salary  may  be  saved  the  aggregate  of 
these  different  amounts  if  the  town  were  doing  its  share  of  improvement 
work,  would  be  sufficient  to  employ  a  competent  engineer  without 
extra  draft  on  the  city's  funds." 

As  it  seems  likely  that  numerous  cities  will  adopt  the  city- 
manager  plan,  it  may  be  well  to  point  out  the  fact  that  such  executives 
should  be  men  competent  to  meet  the  problems  of  maintenance  and 
operation  which  are  very  largely  of  an  engineering  nature.  They 
should  be  fully  experienced  in  all  civic  engineering  undertakings  and 
should  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  what  may  be  termed  civic  tech- 
nique, that  is,  the  best  methods  of  operation  and  management  and  the 
results  achieved  in  other  cities  both  here  and  abroad  in  order  to  avoid 
waste  and  costly  experiments. 

Where  the  plan  of  commission  government  is  not  in  effect  the  city 
council  or  mayor  should  retain  as  a  consulting  civic  engineer  a  man  of 
the  qualifications  noted,  or  where  the  city  administration  is  not  suffi- 
ciently progressive  to  do  so,  a  private  body  such  as  the  chamber  of 
commerce  or  a  merchants'  association  should  retain  such  an  expert  in 
a  consulting  capacity,  in  order  to  be  able  to  make  suitable  recom- 
mendations to  the  political  administration  of  the  city.  This  is 
particularly  appropriate  since  such  bodies  represent  the  largest 
taxpayers  and  their  participation  is  of  more  real  consequence  to  the 
city  than  that  of  its  political  office-holders  who  have  charge  of  its 
affairs  without  having  its  interests  at  heart. 


INDEX 


Abattoir,  Dresden,  228 

Advertising  art,  159 

Advertising  column,  73,  81,  158 

Administrative  functions,  207 

^stlietic  design  of  bridges,  100 

^stiietic  principles  in  city  planning,  29, 
306 

Aged,  buildings  for,  188 

Ahrensfelde  Colony,  307 

Aldermen,  117 

Alexander  Bridge,  Paris,  101 

Alfredshof  Colony,  189,  191,  294 

Altendorf  Colony,  189 

Antwerp  harbor,  306 

Apportionment  of  assessments,  290 

Aqua-Paola,  265 

Architecture,  American,  161 ;  of  large 
manufacturing  buildings,  179;  of  large 
dry-goods  store  buildings,  179 

Art  commission,  26,  73 

Art  galleries,  202 

Arterial  highways,  55 

Asphalt  paving  plants,  232 

Assembly  Center,  Philadelphia,  146 

Assembly  squares,  122 

Assessment  of  public  utilities,  281 

Assessments,  7th  Ave.,  New  York,  291, 
292 

Athletic  field,  148 

Avenue  of  Victory,  Berlin,  134 

Avenues,  radial,  57 

Auditorium,  147 

Augustus  Square,  Leipzig,  126 

Australia's  capital,  Carberra,  52 

Automobile,  calling  system,  119 

Balancing  low  buildings,  167 

Barbarossa  Plaza,  Cologne,  85 

Barracks  in  parks,  140 

Baumeister,  Reinhard,  3 

Baumeister's  principles,  49 

Bavaria  monument,  Munich,  288 

Berlin,  Avenue  of  Victory,  134;  Bran- 
denburger  Gate,  134;  Biilow  Street 
station,  115;    City  Park  station,  312; 


city  planning,  18;  cost  of  re-planning, 
64;  electric  light  columns,  153;  ele- 
vated railway,  113,  115,  277;  Ele- 
vated railway  station,  114,  316; 
Emperor  Frederick's  museum,  78; 
greater,  134;  Landwehr  canal,  307; 
new  gateway,  157;  NoUendorf  plaza, 
station,  120;  Oscar  plaza,  202;  parks 
and  boulevards,  145;  Schloss  plaza, 
282;  Spree  bridge,  101;  steel  arch 
bridge,  101;  stone  arch  bridge,  101; 
street  profile,  56,  57;  suspension 
bridge,  101;  Tanentgien  street,  68; 
terminal  approaches,  63;  Unter  den 
Linden,  159;  volume  of  traffic,  112 

Bisniark  monuments,  160 

Blackwell  tunnel,  118 

Blocks  for  garden  cities,  176 

Block  plan,  167,  181,  187 

Bonn  monument,  289;  Rhine  bridge, 
100 

Bonfires,  236 

Boston,  parks  and  boulevards,  144 

Bourneville,  186 

Brandenburger  gate,  Berlin,  134 

Bremen  harbor,  89;   skyline,  168 

Brick  paving,  234 

Bridges,  98 

Bridge,  Alexander,  Paris,  101;  ap- 
proaches, 98;  Lift,  Duisburg  —  Roh- 
rart,  306;  steel  arch,  Berlin,  101; 
stone,  Berlin,  101;  Spree,  Berlin,  101; 
suspension,  Berlin,  101 

Bridges,  Roman,  99 

Brix,  Joseph,  60 

Brooklyn  Bridge,  terminal,  110 

Buda-Pest,  garden  staircase,  320;  Statue 
St.  Gellert,  320;  Subway,  114;  Sub- 
way Kiosk,  120 

Buffalo,  city  plan,  51 

Buildings  for  the  aged,  188;  tall.  171; 
balancing,  167;   regulation,  169 

Building  companies,  199;  facades,  160; 
regulation,  167,  172,  182 

Biilow  Street  station,  113,  115 


324 


INDEX 


Burgplatz,  Vienna,  34 
Burg  Theater,  Vienna,  282 
Business  streets,  237 
Bush  Terminal,  94,  229 

Canal,  Landwehr,  Berlin,  307 

Candle  power  of  gas  lamps,  268 

Canstadt,  Wilhelma,  135 

Cantilever  bridge,  104 

Carberra,  Australia's  capital,  52 

Castle  Square,  Karlsruhe,  283 

Cathedral,  Cologne,  205 

Cemeteries,  141,  212 

Centers,  civic,  20 

Centers,  regional,  30 

Central  Park,  New  York,  79,  133 

Century  Theater,  New  York,  204 

Charles  Gate,  Munich,  68 

Chelsea  Docks,  New  York,  93 

Chicago,  great  ground  plan,  65 

Chicago,  waterways,  52 

Children's  school  gardens,  220 

Churches,  location  of,  203 

City  charter,  13 

City  construction,  230 

City  engineer,  117 

"City  fathers,"  117 

City  Hall,  Munich,  25 

City  Hall  Plaza,  Philadelphia,  52 

City  Hall  Square,  Wernigerode,  Frontis- 
piece 

City  Hall  and  Courts,  St.  Louis,  20 

City  maintenance,  230 

City  manager,  319 

City  planning  movement,  2;  what  it  is, 
1 ;  cost  of,  12 

City  planner,  318 

City  re-planning,  11 

City  Theater,  Frankfort,  204 

Circumferential  streets,  48 

Civic  Center,  20;  Hirschberg,  33;  Seattle, 
28,  29;  civic  culture,  201;  civic 
embellishment,  149;  engineering,  6, 
299;  fountains,  265;  features,  315; 
growth,  316;   improvement,  11 

Civilization,  Roman,  2 

Clock,  municipal,  73,  81 

Coburg  with  the  Veste,  295 

Cologne,  Barbarossa  Plaza,  85;  skyline, 
168;  railway  station,  107;  Cathedral, 
205;  Rhine  bridge,  100;  replanning 
streets,  61;  ground  plan,  37 

Color  scheme  for  cities,  163,  165 


Colosseum,  147 

Columbus  Circle,  New  York,  130 

Columns,  advertising,  73 

Columbia  University,  New  York,  28 

Comfort  station.  Providence,  47 

Comfort  stations,  154 

Communal  industries,  217,  226 

Commission  on  city  planning,  18 

Commission  government,  318 

Concert  Salon,  Gotenburg,  140 

Concerts  in  parks,  142 

Condemnation  proceedings,  17 

Congested  street  traffic,  124 

Consumers'  union,  194,  218 

Co-operation  of    engineer  and  architect, 

305 
Cost  of  laying  out  a  city,  12,  295 
Cost  of  re-planning  cities,  287 
Court  Garden  and  Allee,  Dusseldorf,  141 
Court  of  workingmen's  houses,  174,  188 
Cronenberg,  189 
Curb  stones,  70 

Cypress  Hill,  Brooklyn,  212,  Gate  to 
Cemetery 

Dahlhauser  Heide,  Colony,  190 
Dayton,  city  manager,  319;   city  charter, 

319 
Delhi,  India's  Capital,  50 
Density  of  population,  Paris,  108 
District  system,  37 
District  heating  system,  222 
Docks,  89 

Docks,  Hamburg,  92,  94;  State-owned,  96 
Draining  street  railway  rails,  247 
Dresden,    abattoir,    228;    electric  plant, 

274;  Z winger,  34 
Dry-good  store  buildings,  179 
Dusseldorf,  Court  Garden  and  Alee,  141; 

river  promenade,  153 

Electric  clocks,  81;  generating  plant, 
271,  274;  light  columns,  Berlin,  153 

Electricity  supply,  269 

Electric  street  railways,  275 

Electric  traction,  106 

Elevated  railway  station,  Berlin,  114, 
277 

Ellicot,  Joseph,  51 

Embankment,  Thames,  London,  97 

Emblems  for  comfort  stations,  158 

Engineer  as  city  manager,  321 

Engineering  progress,  316 


INDEX 


325 


Engineering  works,  163,  309 
English  workingmen's  house,  196 
European  building  regulation,  170 
European  cities,  32 
Excess  condemnation,  288,  289 
Executive  management  of  a  city,  308 

Fairy  Fountain,  Berlin,  221 

Financing  civic  improvements,  287 

Fire  alarm  system,  81,  212;   department, 

211;  escapes,  179;  hydrants,  73;  losses, 

yearly,  214 
Firenze,  Neptune  fountain,  321 
Federal  center,  24 
Floating  baths,  225 
Flagg,  Ernest,  161 
Flatiron  Building,  New  York,  46 
Floral  parks,  146 
Forest  Hill  Garden,  187 
Forum,  Pompeii,  4,  27;  Rome,  22 
Fountain,  Fairy,  Berlin,  221 
Fountain  of  Neptune,  Firenze,  321 
Fountain  Paolina,  Rome,  269 
Fountain  Trevi,  Rome,  264 
Frankfort,  city  theater,  204;  gas  works, 

204;    harbor,   88;    Opera    House,  204; 

palm  garden,  140;  railway  stations,  107; 

water  tower,  127 
Franzens  Ring,  Vienna,  127 
Freight  terminals,  89 
Friederich's  Plaza,  Frankfort,  127 
Friedrichshof  Colony,  191 

Gaiety  Theater,  London,  69 

Garbage  by-products,  256;  contractors, 
256;  destructor  plant,  258;  removal,  79 

Garden  cities,  180,  185,  195;  Block  for, 
176 

Garden  city  of  Hellerau,  186 

Garden  City,  Port  Sunlight,  193 

Gardens,  municipal,  135 

Garden  staircase,  Buda-Pest,  320 

Garden  suburb,  188 

Gas  illumination,  78;  mains,  268;  pres- 
sure, 268;  retorts,  267;  street  lighting, 
266;  supply,  266;  works,  Frankfort, 
274 

Gate,  Charles,  Munich,  68 

Gate  to  Cypress  Hill  Cemetery,  Brook- 
lyn, 212;  to  Greenwood  Cemetery, 
Brooklyn,  212;   of  Victory,  Munich,  12 

Gateway,  Berlin,  151;  Sanssouci,  Pots- 
dam, 235 


Genziner,  Felix,  60 

German  cities,  revenue  from  land,  197; 
height  of  buildings,  170 

German  fundamental  principles,  44; 
city  planning,  8;  harbors,  92;  police 
system,  209;  consumers'  union,  219 

Gotenburg,  Concert  Salon,  140 

Grand  Central  Station,  New  York,  106, 
132 

Grandstands,  146 

Grand  staircase  to  Statue  St.  Gellert, 
Buda-Pest,  320 

Gramercy  Park,  138 

Granite  block  paving,  233 

Grass  plats,  185 

Greater  BerUn,  134 

Great  ground  plan,  36 

Great  ground  plan,  Chicago,  65;  Cologne, 
37;  Karlsruhe,  41;  Seattle,  29;  Mann- 
heim, 40;   Washington,  43 

Great  White  Way,  26 

Ground  plan,  36 

Ground  plan  of  city  Extension,  298 

Ground  plan,  Tempelhofer  Feld,  296 

Group  buildings,  188 

Gutters,  70 

Hall  of  Liberty,  Regensburg,  288 

Hamburg,  docks,  92;  skyline,  168 

Harbor,  Antwerp,  306;  Baltimore,  96; 
Boston,  96:  Buffalo,  96;  Bremen,  89; 
Frankfort,  88,  90;  Gate,  152;  Glasgow, 
92;  Hamburg,  87,  89;  improvements, 
87,  312;  Liverpool,  92;  Manchester, 
92;  Mannheim,  95;  Montreal,  88; 
Neuss,  88 

Harbors,  transferring  passengers,  90 

Hartford,  Conn.,  28 

Haussmann,  Baron,  3 

Heavy  trucks,  119 

Heating  value  of  gas,  267 

Height  of  buildings,  168 

Herrengasse,  Rothenburg,  158 

Highways,  arterial,  55 

Hirschberg,  civic  center,  33 

Historical  examples,  46 

Hospitals,  206 

Housing  problem,  Ulm,  197 

Howe,  Frederic  C,  9,  197 

Hydro-electric  developments,  273 

Hydro-electric  plant,  Tivoli,  Rome,  317 

Hydro-electric  power  commission,  On- 
tario, 273 


326 


INDEX 


Illuminated  monument,  Berlin,  159 

Incinerators,  garbage,  257 

India's  Capital,  Delhi,  50 

Inland  harbors,  88 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  97 

Isles,  safety,  71,  238 

Jamaica  Bay,  93 
Jungferstieg,  Hamburg,  96 
Justitz  Palace,  Munich,  20 

Kansas  City,  parks  and  boulevards,  137 
Karlsruhe,    Castle    Square,    283;    ground 

plan,  41 
Kiel,  water  front,  96 
Kings  Plaza,  Berhn,  157 
Konigsberg,  square,  21 
Krupp,    workingmen's    colony,    189,   190 
Kyllhauser  monument,  289 

Lahn-Valley,  295 

Lamp  posts,  72,  75 

Landwehr  Canal,  113,  307 

L'Enfant,  2,  8 

Leipzig,  Augustus  Square,  126 

Letchworth,  187 

Leutzsch,  water  works,  256 

Lewis,  Nelson  P.,  290 

Libraries,  location,  202 

Light  posts,  74 

Lindau,  harbor  gate,  152 

Liverpool  Garden  Suburb,  188 

Living  rooms,  179 

Lock  Haven,  children's  school  garden, 
220 

London,  cost  of  re-planning,  64;  Gaiety 
Theater,  69;  Regent's  Quadrant,  168; 
Rotherhithe  tunnel,  118;  Thames  Em- 
bankment, 96;  Trafalgar  Square,  58; 
Traffic  Commission,  58 

Macadam  streets,  234 

Main  arteries,  21 

Maine  Monument,  New  York,  213 

Manhole  covers,  71 

Mannheim,  ground  plan,  40;    harbor,  95 

Manufacturing  buildings,  179 

Maritime  city,  312 

Market  houses,  130 

Market  Plaza,  Wiesbaden,  59 

Market  squares,  130 

Markus  Tower,  Rothenburg,  5 

Marquises,  75 


Maximilian  Street,  Munich,  85 

McAneny,  George,  84 

Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New  York, 
25 

Metropolitan  Subway,  Paris,  276 

Modern  cities,  307 

Monuments,  Bismark's,  160 

Monument  Emperor  Wilhelm  I,  Bonn, 
289;  illuminated,  BerUn,  159;  Kyff- 
hauser,  289 

Moving  platforms,  115 

Munich,  Bavaria,  288;  Gate  of  Victorj', 
12;  general  view,  169;  Charles  Gate, 
68;  City  Hall,  35;  Justitz  Palace,  20; 
Maximilian  Street,  85 

Municipal,  asphalt  paving  plant,  232; 
art  commission,  26;  baths,  222;  build- 
ings, 201;  clocks,  73;  refuse  destruc- 
tor plant,  258;  abattoir,  Dresden,  228; 
gardens,  135;  ice  plant,  221;  markets, 
218;  power  plants,  269;  slaughter 
houses,  221 

Names  of  streets,  74 

Naming  streets,  120 

Naples,  Italy,  294 

National  Maine  Monument,  213 

Neptune  fountain,  Firenze,  321 

Neuss,  harbor,  88 

Newspaper  stand,  73 

New  York  Central  Park,  79;  Chelsea 
Docks,  93;  comfort  stations,  155; 
cutting  of  new  street,  64;  Flatiron 
Buildiag,  46;  free  public  baths,  223; 
Grand  Central  Station,  106;  municipal 
asphalt  plant,  232;  Maine  Monument, 
213;  Central  Park  terrace,  234;  Penn- 
sylvania station,  106;  public  hbrary, 
79;  refuse  disposal,  245;  street  widen- 
ing, 84;  terminal  fountain,  266 

Nolen,  John,  60 

Nollendorf  Plaza  station,  Berlin,  120 

Noisy  vehicles,  210 

Noted  cities,  31 

Obelisk,  Central  Park,  New  York,  164 
Oil  engine  plants,  274 
Ontario,   hydro-electric    power     commis- 
sion, 273 
Opera  House,  Frankfort,  204 
Open  squares,  122 
Oscar  Plaza,  Berlin,  202 


INDEX 


327 


Peking,  water  works,  258 

Palm  Garden,  Frankfort,  140 

Police  signal  system,  81 

Police  system,  208 

Panama  Canal,  97 

Paper  baskets,  79 

Parks,  barracks,  140 

Parks  of  Berlin,  135,  145 

Parks  and  boulevards,  Boston,  144;  Kan- 
sas City,  137 

Park  concerts,  142;  entrance,  142;  loca- 
tion, 136;  restaurants,  145;  small,  138; 
systems,  133 

Paris,  Alexander  Bridge,  101;  cost  of  re- 
planning,  64;  density  of  population, 
108;  Metropolitan  Subway,  276;  Place 
du  Chatelet,  40;  Rue  de  Rivoli,  40; 
St.  Michel  Fountain,  46;  squares,  126; 
volume  of  traffic,  109;  Vendome  Plaza, 
203;   Passenger  per  car  mile,  115 

Pennsylvania  R.  R.  Station,  106 

Philadelphia,  assembly  center,  146;  City 
Hall  Plaza,  52 

Piers,  89,  91 

Piazzetta,  Venice,  152 

Planning  of  growing  towns,  294 

Place  de  la  Republique,  Paris,  127 

Place  de  la  Nation,  Paris,  126 

Place  du  Chatelet,  Paris,  40 

Place  Royale,  Paris,  127 

Plaza,  Kings,  Berlin,  157 

Plaza  del  Popolo,  Rome,  126 

Plaza,  Oscar,  Berlin,  202 

Plaza,  Vendome,  Paris,  203 

Playgrounds,  201 

Police  regulation,  Berlin,  215 

Pompeii,  Street  of  Tombs,  4;  Forum, 
4,  27 

Porta  Nigra,  Trier,  12 

Port  Sunlight,  180,  186,  188,  193 

Port  of  Hamburg,  96 

Posen,  water  works,  275 

Post  office  building,  132 

Potomac  Electric  Light  and  Power  Co., 
271 

Promenades,  142 

Providence,  comfort  station,  47 

Public  buildings,  131 

Public  library.  New  York,  28,  79.  132 

Public  interest,  12 

Public  ownership,  281 

Public  service  corporations,  284 

Public  utilities,  valuation  of,  281 


Radial  streets,  48,  57 

Rail  drainage,  247 

Railway  stations,  106,  107 

Railway,  suspended,  279 

Recreation  grounds,  143 

Recreation  piers,  91,  313 

Refuse    can   for   street   sweepings,    248; 

collecting  cart,  248;    destructor  plant, 

258;    disposal,  254 
Regent's  Quadrant,  London,  168 
Regensburg,  Hall  of  Liberty,  288 
Regional  centers,  30 
Relief  institutes,  208 
Remscheid,  strand  bath,  225 
Rent  in  colonies,  192 
Re-planning  cities,  11 
Re-planning  streets,  Cologne,  61 
Residential  street,  175,  239 
Restaurants  in  parks,  145 
Revenues  from  municipal  land,  135,  197 
Rewards  for  artistic  fajades,  159 
Rhine  bridges,  100 
River  Promenade,  Diisseldorf,  153 
Riverside  Drive,  New  York,  92 
Roman  bridges,  99 
Roman  civilization,  2 
Roman  city  planner,  305 
Rome,  Forum,  22;    Fountain  Trevi,  264; 

Fountain     Paolina,     269;      Plaza     del 

Popolo,  126;   St.  Peter's,  69 
Rothenburg  on  the  Tauber,  5,  158 
Rotherhithe  tunnel,  118 
Royal  Crescent  at  Bath,  168 
Rue  de  Rivoli,  Paris,  40 

Safety  isles,  71,  238 

St.  Louis,  cost  of  cutting  new  streets,  64; 

swimming    pool,    220;     city    hall    and 

courts,  20 
St.  Michel  Fountain,  Paris,  46 
St.  Peter's,  Rome,  69 
St.  Petersburg,  water  supply,  261 
Sand  sowers,  246 
Sanssouci,  gateway,  235;  Sicilian  Garden, 

235;  terrace,  135 
Schoolhouses,  stairways,  178 
Schloss  Plaza,  Berlin,  282 
Sea  Bridge,  Wilhelmina,  Scheveningen,  147 
Sea  gates.  91,  312 
Seattle,   city   charter,    13;    civic   center, 

28,  29;  great  ground  plan,  29 
Seventh  Avenue,  New  York,  assessment, 
291 


328 


INDEX 


Sewage  pumping  plants,  251;  by-prod- 
uct, 245;  disposal,  241;  treatment 
plant,  243 

Sewer  pits,  70 

Shade  trees,  79 

Sheffield,  street  railway  system,  279 

Show-cases,  72 

Sicilian  Garden,  Sanssouci,  Potsdam,  235 

Sidewalk  cleaning,  250 

Sidewalks,  obstruction,  70,  72,  73;  width 
of,  59 

Sieges  AUee,  Berlin,  134 

Sitte,  Camillo,  3 

Skylines,  167,  168 

Skyscrapers,  161,  315 

Sleeping  rooms,  179 

Small  manufacturer,  226 

Snow  removal,  248,  251 

Social  evil,  53 

Spree  Bridge,  Berlin,  101 

Sprinkling  apparatus,  252 

Squares,  122,  126 

Stadiums,  147 

Stairways,  178 

Slaughter-house,  Dresden,  228 

Steam  electric  power  plants,  271,  274 

Stellungen,  water  works,  275 

Storm  sewers,  244 

Strand  bath,  artificial,  225 

Streets,  care  of,  67,  245 

Street  cars,  129,  277 

Street  cleaning,  248;  hours  of,  249; 
department,  Berlin,  253;   crew,  249 

Street  construction,  230 

Street  crossings,  underground,  125;  super- 
imposed, 128 

Street  drainage,  247 

Streets  in  Europe,  58 

Street  flushing,  247 

Street  foundation,  236 

Streets  in  Hamburg,  69 

Street  illumination,  75;  lighting,  77; 
names,  120;  paving,  231;  plan,  42; 
profiles,  Berlin,  56,  57;  Prussian  law, 
58;  obstructions,  69;  railways,  275; 
residential,  Berlin,  175;  sanding,  245; 
signs,  74,  132;  sprinkhng,  245;  sweeping 
cans,  248 

Streets,  up-to-date,  67;  width  of,  58,  167; 
widening,  84,  290 

StUbben,  Joseph,  3 

Subway  Kiosk,  Buda-Pest,  120 

Subways,  111,  239 


Subway,  Paris,  276 
Subway  station,  312,  316 
Sub-surface,  draining  of  streets,  246 
Sub-stations  for  electric  distribution,  276 
Suburban  gardens,  194 
Suburban  colony,  Ahrensfelde,  301 
Summer  houses,  194 
Sunken  refuse  receptacle,  248 
Superimposed  street  crossing,  128 
Streets,  replanning,  Cologne,  61 
Suspended  railway,  279 
Suspension  bridge  101,  104 
Swimming  pool,  St.  Louis,  220 

Tall  buildings,  171 

Tauentzien  Street,  Berlin,  68 

Tempelhofer  Feld,  296 

Terminal  approaches,  Berhn,  63 

Terminal  fountain,  265 

Terrace,  Central  Park,  New  York,  234 

Terrace,  Sanssouci,  135 

Thames  Embankment,  London,  97 

Theater,  Gaiety,  London,  69 

Theater,  Municipal,  Frankfort,  204 

Theaters,  location,  204 

Tivoli,   hydro-electric    plant,    Rome,  317 

Town  planning,  295,  300 

Trafalgar  Square,  London,  58 

Traffic,  congested  streets,  124;  commis- 
sion, London,  58;  handling,  278;  regu- 
lations, 122,  130;  street  signs,  132; 
system,  development  of,  276 

Transportation,  106 

Transportation  terminals,  129 

Travelers,  31 

Trees,  shade,  79,  150;  as  focal  points,  152 

Trevi  Fountain,  265 

Trier  (Treves)  Porta  Nigra,  12 

Trolley  cars,  106 

Trolley  post,  72,  153 

Tunnel,  public  utility,  241 

Underground  comfort  stations,  156;  traffic, 
240;  work,  Hamburg,  69;  street  cross- 
ings, 125 

Union  R.  R.  Station,  Washington,  106 

Unter  den  Linden,  Berlin,  159 

Ulm,  plan  of  Cathedral,  204 

Ulm,  housing  problems,  197 

Valuation    of    public    utilities,    281;     of 

water  supply  system,  283 
Vehicular  traffic,  106 


INDEX 


329 


Volume  of  traffic,  Berlin,  112 
Volume  of  traffic,  Paris,  109 
Venice,  Piazzetta,  152 
Vendome  Plaza,  Paris,  203 
Vienna,  Burgplatz,  34;  Burg  Theater,  282; 
Franzens  Ring,  127;  Votiv  Church,  121 

Washington  City  plan,  50;  electric 
power  plant,  271;  ground  plan,  43; 
Union   R.  R.  Station,  106 

Waste  in  city  funds,  321 

Waste-paper  baskets,  79 

Water  approaches,  312 

Water  consumption  of  large  cities,  212, 
264 

Water  fronts,  91,  96,  313 

Water  purification,  259;  supply,  258; 
towers,  310;  towers,  Frankfort,  127; 
towers,  Mannheim,  266;  tower,  Stel- 
lungen,  275;  ways,  87,  311;  ways, 
Chicago,  52;  waste,  264 


Waterworks,     Leutzsch,     259;      Peking, 

258;   Posen,  275 
Wernigerode,  City  Hall,  Frontispiece 
West  End  Avenue,  New  York,  53 
Widening  of  streets.  New  York,  83,  85 
Width  of  streets,  58 
Wiesbaden,  Market  Plaza,  59 
Wilhelma,  Canstadt,  135 
Wilhelmina,    Sea   Bridge,    Scheveningen, 

147 
Winter  Palace,  St.  Petersburg,  164 
Wittelsbach  Fountain,  Munich,  265 
Wooden  block  paving,  234 
Woolworth  Building,  New  York,  13 
Workingmen's  colonies,  180,  183,  189 
Workingmen's    colony,    Alfredshof,    189, 

294;  Dahlhauser  Heide,  190 
Workingmen's  houses,  court  of,  174,  188 
Workingmen's  house,  Enghsh,  196 

Zone  systems,  36 
Zwinger,  Dresden,  34 


«'"«UTOAflv„c,UTy 


,  imifm 


UCLA-AUPL 

NA  9030  K6 


L  005  858  290  9 

UNIV.  OF  CALIF.  LIBRARY,  LOS  ANGtt€fe 

Library  of  Architecture  and  Allied  Arts 

3723  Wilshire  Blvd.,  Suite  9 

Los  Angeles,  California  90005 


Date 

Due 

1 

Library  Bureau  Cat.  No.  1137 

iiniiiltii 


:'■ 


